Charlock

Charlock (Sinapis arvensis) has long been a bane of arable farmers as it is a persistent weed that chokes spring-sown crops. Although modern farmers can control it by using weed-killers, it can still be seen growing vigorously on field margins, roadsides and abandoned land across Great Britain and elsewhere.

Charlock grows to 18 inches (45 centimetres) in height. The thick, hairy stems bear unlobed leaves that are large at the base of the stem and smaller higher up. The bright yellow flowers, which appear between May and July, are notable for having sepals that spread out horizontally below the petals. The seed pods are cylindrical, sticking out from the stem, with the seeds forming in two separate rows, one on each side of the pod.

A single charlock plant can produce hundreds of seeds. Not only does this make it difficult to control the plant, but the seeds are extremely long-lived. It is not unknown for a farmer to plough up a long-established pasture and find that it soon turns into a sea of yellow, due to buried charlock seeds, maybe as much as 50 years old and dating from the field’s previous use as a cornfield, being brought close to the surface where they can germinate.

Charlock has been used for food in past centuries, being boiled as a vegetable.

 

© John Welford

Black tern

The black tern (Childonias niger) has been likened to the swallow in its graceful flight over water, beating to and fro and taking insects from just above the surface.

The black tern is a migratory bird that breeds over much of Europe and winters in Africa. Within the United Kingdom it is generally only seen on Spring and Autumn passage, in England and Wales, as it breeds here only very rarely. It is most likely to be seen near freshwater lakes, including reservoirs and flooded gravel pits.


Appearance

Male and female black terns are very similar in appearance, being about 23-25 centimetres (9.5 inches) long. The black tern is therefore similar in size to the little tern, but bulkier in shape. The wings are longer and broader and the tail is only just forked. The bill is black and the legs reddish-brown. The summer plumage is very distinctive, being black on the head, chest and underparts as far back as the underside of the tail, which is white. The upperparts are black towards the front but shading to grey further back. The wings are grey both above and below.

In winter much of the black colouring is lost, leaving a black cap contrasting with white on the face and underparts, and slatey-grey plumage elsewhere.


Breeding

The black tern returns to its breeding grounds in late April or early May, the nesting sites being in dense vegetation close to water, or on islets of vegetation floating on the surface. Breeding colonies are formed with several pairs nesting close together. The nest itself comprises dry reeds and is built by both partners.

The clutch usually comprises three eggs, but sometimes only two, laid in May or June. Should the nest be destroyed, the pair may try again as late as July. Incubation, for up to 17 days, is done by both birds in turn, after which they also share the feeding of the chicks, which they do at frequent intervals.

Black terns leave for their winter quarters in August or early September.

Food for black terns consists mainly of insects, caught on the wing as described above, but they will also take larvae and small fish.

The black tern has amber conservation status in the UK due to constant threats to its habitat and its relative rarity as a visitor.

© John Welford

Blackcap

The blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) is a member of the warbler family that is common throughout Europe, although in Great Britain it is mainly a migrant, wintering only in the far south of England. However, with winters gradually becoming milder throughout the country, it is quite possible that the blackcap will become a resident species across a much wider range in future. It is also found in Asia, as far east as western Siberia, and also in the Middle East and north Africa.


Appearance and behaviour

It is quite a small bird at around 14 centimetres (5.5 inches) in length, slim in build and with a thin bill and longish tail. The plumage is generally grey, with the upperparts being darker than the underparts. Male birds have a distinctive black cap above the eye (hence the name) which in the females is a chestnut colour. The plumage of the female birds also tends towards a browner shade. In juvenile birds the cap starts as either dark brown (males) or yellowy-brown (females).

The song of the blackcap is particularly fluty and pleasant, which has led to it being known as the “northern nightingale”.

Blackcaps are woodland birds, preferring broadleaved or mixed woods with plenty of undergrowth. However, they can also be seen in parks and overgrown gardens, especially those birds that over-winter.


Breeding

Breeding birds arrive in the UK in April or May and do not return to their wintering grounds until late August or early September. The nest is built in a hedge or bush quite close to the ground; it is woven from twigs and lined with animal hair. The male bird is quite likely to build a second nest which he uses as a perch from which to sing. The clutch is of four to six eggs which are incubated by both birds for up to 14 days. The young are fed by both birds for up to 14 days, the preferred food being non-hairy caterpillars. Feeding continues for a few days after fledging. A second brood is quite likely in July in years when food supplies are plentiful.

The food of the adult blackcap is insects, larvae and spiders, and also berries. Particular favourites among the latter are blueberries, raspberries and elderberries.

© John Welford

Black-headed gull

The black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus) is somewhat mis-named, because its head is much more chocolate-brown than black, and in winter it is not even that. However, the head colouring does make it one of the most distinctive seabirds to be seen on the British coast. It is widespread throughout Europe.

It is also not really accurate to describe it as a seabird, as it is also the commonest “inland” gull, especially in northern England, Wales and Scotland. Many individuals never see the sea throughout their lives. Habitats include gravel pits, moorland bogs, lakes and rivers, and they roam widely over the countryside, often being found on landfill sites in large flocks. They are also common in towns and cities. They can become quite tame in that they will approach people for scraps of food.


Appearance and behaviour

The black-headed gull is one of the smaller gulls, at around 37 centimetres (14.5 inches) long. It has a slim build, rounded head and tail, narrow pointed wings and a thin bill. It is mainly white in colour, with bluish-grey wings that have a white leading edge and black tips. The “black” head, or rather the front part of the head, is white in winter with just a couple of dark smudges. The bill and legs are dark red. Males and females have similar plumage.

The flight is buoyant with fast beats, soaring and gliding. Inland it will follow the plough in flight or walk across the fields.


Breeding

Black-headed gulls winter on lakes and rivers (often on ornamental lakes in towns) and pair up before flying to their breeding grounds, which may or may not be on the coast, in March and April. They are colonial when breeding, often in groups of up to a thousand birds. These colonies can be very noisy places!

The nest, made from grass or reeds, is built by both birds, often on small islands or even as a floating structure. Three eggs is the usual clutch, and these are incubated by both partners for up to 23 days. The offspring will stay in the nest for several days, but if they are disturbed may well abandon the nest and hide in nearby undergrowth or escape by swimming.

Food is brought to the nest by the male, but he often passes it to the female who then distributes it to the chicks. The food is quite varied, including worms, insects, molluscs, invertebrates, small vertebrates, fish, frogs, seeds, and even carrion.

The young are ready to fly at five to six weeks, at which they form flocks with other families. Only one brood is raised in a season.

© John Welford

Black-tailed godwit

The black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa) is a shore bird that is widespread in much of Europe and other parts of the world (including Australasia) but less so in the British Isles. It is found on the coasts of Germany, the Low Countries, Denmark and southern Sweden, and also Iceland and western France. Many birds winter in the Mediterranean region and Africa.

In Britain it is a rare breeder, its breeding grounds being mainly in East Anglia and Shetland. Some birds from northern Europe winter along the east and south coasts of England, and some can be seen on passage during the Autumn.


Appearance and behaviour

The black-tailed godwit is a large wader with a long straight bill that can reach 12 centimetres (nearly 5 inches) in length. From head to tail the bird is about 40 centimetres (15.5 inches) long. It has long legs on which it walks upright and which trail behind in flight.

The plumage, which is similar as between male and female black-tailed godwits, is very different in summer from that seen in winter. The summer plumage is chestnut on the head and breast, lighter and barred further down. The upperparts are mottled dark brown and red-buff, with the upper wings tending towards grey. The tail, not surprisingly, is black-tipped.

In winter all the chestnut and buff colouring disappears, to be replaced by grey-brown above and white below. The wings retain their dark edging and the black of the tail-tip becomes more evident.

The black-tailed godwit is a fast flyer with rapid wing-beats. It walks gracefully with the head held upright except when probing its bill into the mud for food. It will also wade up to its belly with the bill sweeping the shallows from side to side. It is a gregarious bird when feeding.

The black-tailed godwit feeds on insects, larvae, molluscs, worms, spiders and small crustaceans.


Breeding

Black-tailed godwits return to their breeding grounds in March or April, these being inland peat bogs, water meadows and areas adjacent to ponds and lakes. They arrive in small flocks, after which pairs form to stake out their nesting territory. The courtship flight consists of the male flying in circles above the nest site, displaying his tail feathers and emitting a loud call.

A nest is built in April or May, this being a shallow scrape in lush waterside vegetation. A clutch of four well-camouflaged eggs is laid and they are incubated by both partners in turn for around 24 days. Soon after hatching the chicks disperse and hide themselves in the surrounding vegetation. Only one brood is raised.

The black-tailed godwit was once a common breeding bird in the British Isles but breeding ceased in the early 19th century and only resumed in the mid 20th century. Breeding numbers are still very low, which is why the black-tailed godwit has red conservation status.

© John Welford

Black-throated diver

The black-throated diver (Gavia arctica) is less commonly seen in the UK than its red-throated cousin, but is commoner in mainland Europe. It breeds in northwest Scotland and winters around much of the British coast. As might be gathered from its Latin name, its summer breeding grounds extend far to the north, including Greenland, although the November migration extends as far south as the Mediterranean.


Appearance

The black-throated diver is larger than the red-throated diver, and bulkier, but smaller than the great northern diver. It measures around 55-70 centimetres in length (up to 27 inches). It has a more slender bill and thinner neck than the great northern.

The summer plumage of the black-throated diver is similar to that of the great northern, with clearly-defined black and white markings on the back and lighter underneath. However, the head is much lighter in colour, except for the distinctive black throat and black and white stripes up the sides of the neck. The black throat is topped by a short “barcode”. Males and females have similar plumage.

In winter, the three species of diver are much harder to tell apart in terms of plumage. They all have brown heads and backs, although the amount of brown on the heads and necks varies between them, with the black-throated diver having brown plumage to below the eyeline and on the neck, to the half-way point from back to front. The throat and chest are white.


Behaviour and feeding

The black-throated diver is silent in flight but has a loud, rhythmic wailing song.

The black-throated diver, as might be expected, is at home on the water, with its food consisting mainly of fish, for which it dives from the surface. It will take other food, including crustaceans, molluscs and worms, and sometimes frogs. As with many water-based birds, evolution has pushed their legs far back on their bodies, which is fine for swimming and diving but not so good when the bird is on land, where walking is a struggle.


Breeding

Black-throated divers nest on small islands in fresh-water lochs in Scotland, the nest comprising nothing more than a shallow depression in the grass. They are easily disturbed, so, given their slow progress on land, the nests are often perched next to the water so that they can escape quickly if danger threatens.

The clutch, laid in April or May, may be one, two or three eggs, which the parent birds take turns to incubate for around 30 days. When they hatch, the chicks join their parents on the water and the family group stays together for another two months. Larger groups of divers will later make their way to the coast, even before the young are able to fly.

The black-throated diver has amber status in terms of conservation. This is due in part to its limited breeding environment, its slow rate of reproduction (only one small brood per year) and its susceptibility to marine pollution.

© John Welford

Blue tit

The blue tit (Parus caeruleus) is one of the most popular and welcome British garden birds, not only for its attractiveness but its acrobatic displays on bird feeders of all kinds.


Appearance

Blue tits are small birds, around 11 or 12 centimetres (4 to 5 inches) in length. Their colouring is very distinctive, with yellow underparts, green upperparts, white faces (surrounded by a thin black stripe, and a black bar fore and aft of the eye which gives them something of a “highwayman’s mask”), and blue on the crown of the head, wings and tail. Males and females have similar plumage. Young birds are much greener, especially on the underparts. As with most tits, the blue tit has a fairly long tail that is used for balancing when the bird is hanging on to thin twigs or the wires of a bird feeder.


Behaviour

The blue tit is a woodland bird that has adapted to the presence of man wonderfully well, being present in gardens and parks in towns and cities as well as rural areas. Their food includes insects, seeds, nuts and fruit, much of which is in short supply in winter months. They are therefore frequent visitors to bird tables and provide much entertainment for householders who hang pieces of fat on strings or peanuts in wire feeders. The blue tit thinks nothing of hanging upside down to get at the food.

The blue tit has a pleasant, high-pitched song that incorporates trills and repeated notes. The flight can appear weak and fluttery, and blue tits are happy to hop along the ground rather than fly.


Breeding

Blue tits are frequent occupiers of nest boxes during the breeding season. Pairs start to search for suitable nest sites from early April and a nest box hanging on a wall makes an excellent substitute for a hole in a tree. They will build a nest in any small cavity that presents itself, and gardeners have found blue tits nesting in all sorts of odd corners.

The nest consists of moss, lined with feathers and soft hairs. A clutch of up to 16 eggs is laid, with the female bird doing all the incubating, for up to 14 days, while the male brings food to her at the nest. Both birds feed the young with a constant supply of insects and caterpillars, which can be hard work if most of the chicks thrive. The young birds fledge at around 20 days but are still fed by their parents for a short time longer.

If the food supply is good, the adult birds may raise a second brood in July, but this is unusual.

© John Welford

Brambling

The brambling (Fringilla montifringilla) is a member of the finch family that is a winter visitor to the British Isles.


Distribution

Bramblings are very common in continental Europe, where large flocks migrate from the forests of Scandinavia to central and southern Europe in late September, returning to their northern breeding grounds in March and April.

The numbers reaching Britain can vary tremendously, depending on weather conditions and other factors. In some years as few as 50,000 birds over-winter whereas in others the population can approach two million.

If the winter is particularly harsh, with snow cover making feeding difficult, individual bramblings may take food from garden feeding trays, even in urban areas. However, they are relatively uncommon garden visitors in comparison with other finches.

The brambling is not regarded as being under immediate threat as a species, although many British birdwatchers may not have seen a brambling very often. However, it is possible that bramblings are seen more often than is realised, due to their habit of mixing with chaffinch flocks and therefore possibly being mistaken for the more familiar bird.


Appearance and behaviour

The brambling is similar in shape to the chaffinch, with which it is often seen in mixed flocks, but is slightly smaller at 14-15 centimetres in length (nearly 6 inches). Male birds have an orange-buff breast, white underparts and mottled brown head and back. They have a white rump that is seen when in flight. In summer, the head becomes much darker and the breast colour more intense. Female bramblings are generally lighter in colour, without the summer/winter changes seen in the males.

The brambling has a sharp metallic call, but the male birds also have a more prolonged chattering song that is heard as the breeding season approaches.

The winter habitat of the brambling is fields and meadows close to woodland, particularly beech woods where beechmast is a favourite food. They also feed on seeds and berries, particularly of mountain ash (rowan), alder and birch trees, which are all very common in northern forests.


Breeding

During the breeding season in northern Europe, the preferred habitat is coniferous forest, where the nest is made from moss, plant stalks and lichen. The clutch, usually laid in June, is of four to seven eggs, which hatch after around 14 days of incubation by the female bird on her own. Both parents feed the nestlings with insects and larvae for up to another 14 days in the nest and also for a short time after fledging. Insects are also the food of adult birds during the summer months.

© John Welford

Bullfinch

The bullfinch is a garden bird that is not seen as often as formerly in Great Britain, thus giving cause for concern for its future survival.


Conservation status

The bullfinch is well-established in the British Isles, although it has been persecuted in the past because of its supposed damage to fruit crops by taking buds early in the season and the ripe fruit later on. It is still on the “amber” list of species that are in danger of tipping into the “red”, and thus its conservation status is a cause for some concern.


Appearance

The bullfinch (Pyrrhula pyrrhula) is similar in colouring to the chaffinch but has a markedly different shape, typified by its “bull” neck such that the head seems to be joined directly to the body. It is a compact bird, portly in shape, with a short bill, rounded shortish wings and a square-shaped tail. Males have a distinctive pinkish-red breast (more deeply coloured than the chaffinch) whereas females are more yellowy-pink.

The upperparts are grey, darker in the females and lighter in the males, such that the contrast in colour is much more marked in male bullfinches. The body colouring reaches to just beneath the eye, with the top of the head being black in both sexes. Males and females also share the white markings on the otherwise dark wings, and a white rump.

In size the bullfinch is slightly smaller than the chaffinch, at around 14-15 centimetres in length (nearly six inches). The song is mainly low-pitched, even mournful in tone, with long warbling notes included in it. A recording of the song can be heard on this page of the RSPB website, which includes a short video and other information about the bullfinch.


Distribution and habitat

In continental Europe the bullfinch is a migratory bird, flying south in winter months from its breeding grounds in the coniferous forests of the north. However, it is a resident bird throughout most of the British Isles, the exceptions being the far north and west of Scotland. In Europe, bullfinches are often seen in flocks, but in Britain they are more dispersed, tending to form pairs or small family groups.

In Britain, its preferred habitats include woodland with good ground cover, hedgerows, bushy areas of parks, and large gardens. It is not only the cover provided by these habitats that attracts bullfinches but the food supply, as the adult birds feed almost exclusively on seeds, berries and buds, hardly ever feeding from the ground.


Breeding

Nest building, by the female, takes place in late April, often in bushes or brambles quite close to the ground. The nest is built from woven twigs, lined with softer material such as hairs and moss. Although the nest-building work is done by the hen bird, the cock will never be far away. The clutch of five eggs is incubated, mainly by the female, for up to 14 days, after which both parents feed the nestlings, mainly on insects, for up to 16 days. The young birds are also brought food by the adults for a few days after they have fledged.

© John Welford

Buzzard

The buzzard is a remarkably successful bird of prey in Great Britain, partly through enjoying protected status and partly because it has plenty to feed on.

The buzzard (Buteo buteo) is the commonest bird of prey in Great Britain, having increased in numbers in recent decades and spread from the hilly areas of the west (such as Wales and the Lake District) to farmland across England, although it is seen less frequently the further east one goes.

The fact that it feeds on carrion, as well as small mammals and birds, may account for its success given that mankind continually supplies food in the form of roadkill.


Appearance and behaviour

The buzzard is a medium-sized raptor, between hawk and eagle in size but similar to the osprey. The total length is around 50-56 centimetres (20-22 inches) and the wingspan 117-137 centimetres (46-54 inches). The wings are broad and rounded with splayed tips. The plumage is typically brown above and lighter below, but there is considerable variation between individuals. The chest is often speckled, and the wings have dark tips and trailing edges. The rounded tail distinguishes it from the red kite (fork-tailed) with which it could be confused.

The call is loud, long and piercing; once heard, never forgotten! A recording is available on this page of the RSPB website, along with other information.

In flight, the buzzard mixes gliding with slow, laboured wing-beats. Buzzards sometimes hover and also soar and plunge. When hunting for live prey they may either plunge from flight or from a vantage point such as a rock or post. Buzzards sometimes feed on invertebrates or earthworms, which they find when walking on the ground. They have also been known to wait for hours, unmoving, for a field-mouse to emerge from its hole.


Nesting and breeding

Buzzards are highly territorial, defending their “patch” of some three to four kilometres in diameter throughout the year. Within this area they may have a number of preferred nesting sites, moving to a different one in successive years. The nest is built high in a tree or on a cliff face, comprising twigs lined with moss, hair and leaves. A buzzard’s nest can resemble that of an osprey in size, being up to a metre across. Two to four eggs are laid, which are incubated for anything from 30 to 50 days, most of the work being done by the female bird. The male bird brings food to the nest which the female gives to the nestlings. The young birds fledge after about 40-50 days but the parents continue to feed them for several weeks more.

Buzzards can breed from the age of three years, but the number reaching this age is small. Those birds that do survive to adulthood have an average life expectancy of eight years.


Prospects for the buzzard

The distribution and number of birds of prey is always a reflection of food supply and human activity. When the food chain is disrupted, the creatures at the top of the chain soon suffer and numbers can fall dramatically. The use of pesticides and intensive farming methods have led to severe falls in buzzard numbers in the past, but these threats have reduced in more recent years, with subsequent recovery of the buzzard population. Shooting and poisoning by gamekeepers have also reduced considerably since World War II, especially as most of them have come to appreciate that buzzards pose very little threat to the rearing of game birds. The buzzard shares the protected status enjoyed by all UK birds of prey.

© John Welford

Melanitta nigra (Common scoter)

The common scoter (Melanitta nigra) is a sea-duck that has seen a drastic decline in recent years in terms of its breeding population in the United Kingdom, thus making it a “red list” species. It is most likely to be seen, during the breeding season, in the far north of Scotland. It winters along the UK coast with concentrations in west and south Wales, the Moray Firth in Scotland and the north Norfolk coast in England.

It is distributed in greater numbers in northern Europe, northern Asia and Alaska, with breeding grounds in the tundra of Iceland, Finland, Russia and elsewhere. Migrant groups can be seen in western Europe, the Baltic and as far south as northwestern Africa.


Appearance and behaviour

At 46-51 centimetres (19 inches) in length, the common scoter is smaller than its cousin the velvet scoter. It is of squat build with a short neck, longish pointed tail and dark green legs. Male common scoters are all black except for some yellow on the upper bill, which has a pronounced knob. Females are brown with pale patches below the eye extending to the upper neck. Juvenile birds also have this pale patch which turns dark in male birds but not in females.

Like the velvet scoter, the common scoter is a strong flyer, often low over the sea in snaking lines, its wings whistling as they beat rapidly. It swims buoyantly with its tail raised. It can be seen stretching its neck, shaking its head and raising its tail vertically, spreading it in a fan.

It rarely comes to land (or even to sand-banks), except to nest, but when it does it walks awkwardly with an upright posture.

The common scoter has a whistling or piping call that is high-pitched and plaintive in the males and hoarse and grating in the females.


Feeding

The diet comprises small crustaceans, molluscs, larvae, worms and aquatic vegetation. Common scoters dive for their food, at depths of up to six metres. Although they dive from the surface, common scoters will escape danger from skuas (etc) by diving from mid-flight.


Breeding

Common scoters reach their breeding grounds in May, choosing a nesting site near water in moorland or tundra. The nest is hidden in long grass, or under a bush or among rocks. It is thinly lined with moss or dry grass.

The clutch is from five to eight eggs, which the female incubates on her own for up to 31 days, abandoned by her partner who takes no further part in family life. Only one brood is raised.

Once hatched, the ducklings are led to the water by their mother who looks after them for six or seven weeks, after which they are left to fend for themselves, gathering into flocks for protection. Common scoter “rafts” can be seen offshore, sometimes with smaller numbers of velvet scoters mixed in with them. This habit makes scoters of both kinds vulnerable to oil spills and may be the main reason why the common scoter is now a red list species.

© John Welford

Capercaillie

The capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) is the largest grouse species found in Europe, being native to Scotland, the Pyrenees and northern and central Europe. Within Scotland it is confined to pine forests in the Grampian Highlands and surrounding areas. A good place to see capercaillies is the Abernethy Forest Nature Reserve at Loch Garten, near Aviemore. Numbers have been in decline for a number of years, but the trend was reversed somewhat in 2009 with reports of a good breeding season.

The capercaillie became extinct in Scotland in the 18th century but was reintroduced in the 19th century. However, as a game bird it has never been particularly popular because its flesh is not all that appetising. Whereas the breeding of other grouse species has been a priority so that the shooting season can succeed, this has not been the case for the capercaillie. It is therefore a “red status” species that would almost certainly have become extinct yet again had it not had this status and protection in designated nature reserves.


Appearance

Male and female capercaillies are very different in appearance. The cocks measure up to 94 centimetres (37 inches) in length with the hens being much smaller at 67 centimetres (26 inches). Both have heavy bills, quite long necks, broad wings and a rounded tail. The male’s tail is fanned out in spectacular style during the mating ceremony, and he also thrusts out the “beard” on his throat. The cock capercaillie is dark in colour with a glossy bottle-green chest, brown wings, a yellow bill, red eyepatch, and white shoulder patches and underwings. The hen birds have brown barred upperparts and wings and much lighter underparts. Hens have a prominent reddish tinge to the throat, chest and tail.


Courting and breeding

Although capercaillies are shy birds, and not easily spotted as they hide in dense woodland, their spring courting displays are very conspicuous. In an open space known as a “lek”, the males literally “strut their stuff”, fanning their tails, thrusting their chests out and making extraordinary noises that sound as though the bird is retching or even pulling a cork from a bottle! Fights between males are common. The females watch the display from the surrounding branches and are then led away by the victorious males.

The nest is a hollow in the ground, lined with leaves and grass, often near the base of a tree with good ground cover. All the work of making the nest, incubating the eggs and looking after the young is done by the female. The clutch, which is laid at any time from April to June, consists of at least five eggs and may be as many as eleven. However, the average survival rate for the chicks is only around 1.5 in a good season, and there may be no survivors if weather conditions are poor or food supplies are scarce. Only one brood is hatched per season.

Incubation takes up to 29 days and the chicks are able to feed themselves as soon as they hatch. The hen offers protection for them under her wings in the early days, although they are often able to fly from about ten days after hatching.

Food for capercaillies consists of insects, berries and the buds and shoots of conifers. In winter, pine needles form much of the diet.

© John Welford

Chaffinch

The chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) is the commonest finch in the British Isles, and is the second commonest of all breeding birds in the UK.


Distribution

The chaffinch is widespread throughout Europe and into north Africa, the Middle East and western Asia. It has adapted very well to human habitation and is regularly seen in parks and gardens as well as woodlands and open countryside.


Appearance

The chaffinch measures around 15 centimetres (6 inches) in length. It has a thick, pointed bill and a shallow fork to the tail. The male birds are notable for their grey-blue head and nape, red-brown back, pinkish-red cheeks and breast and olive-green rump. Their winter plumage is less highly coloured. Female chaffinches lack the colouring of the males, being yellow-brown above and brown-grey below.

The wings are marked with white on the shoulders and there is a prominent white stripe on the tail edges.


Behaviour and song

The flight is undulating, with the wings being closed every few beats. On the ground, chaffinches hop or walk with jerks of the head.

Adult chaffinches feed mainly on seeds. However, as garden birds they are more likely to feed from the ground than from bird feeders. In winter they are often seen in open fields, flocking with other seed-eaters such as bramblings and yellowhammers.

The chaffinch has a sharp, metallic “pink-pink” call, or “chip” in flight. The song is a chattering phrase that varies between locations. It has been likened to a fast bowler at cricket running up to the wicket and bowling, as it builds to a climax and suddenly releases. A recording of the song can be heard on this page of the RSPB website, which includes a video and other information about the chaffinch.


Breeding

Male and female chaffinches spend winter apart. The males arrive at the breeding territory in February or March, with the females arriving several weeks later. The females choose the nest site, usually a tree fork, and do most of the nest building with only a little help from the males.

The nest is a compact construction of moss, lichen and spiders’ webs, sometimes camouflaged with pieces of bark taken from the tree in which the nest has been built.

The clutch can be anything from three to six eggs, with five being typical. The hen chaffinch incubates the eggs alone for up to 14 days, but both partners feed the chicks, bringing them insects and spiders for about two weeks and also for a short time after they have fledged. If the brood is raised in April or May a second brood may be raised in June or July.

© John Welford

Black-necked grebe

The black-necked grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) is one of the smaller members of the grebe family of water birds. It is found in most parts of the world, in three closely related subspecies, and is known in North America as the “eared grebe”.

It is a rare bird in the British Isles, breeding inland in limited areas of the Midlands and north of England and in southern Scotland. In winter it is more likely to be seen in coastal areas of southern England and Wales. The breeding grounds are shallow lakes surrounded by reeds and similar plants, whereas in winter it frequents estuaries, gravel pits and reservoirs.

The black-necked grebe is more common on the continent of Europe, where it has spread westwards from the south-east to breed in such areas as the Netherlands, eastern France and southern Spain.


Appearance

The black-necked grebe is around 30 centimetres (12 inches) in length. It has a thin, up-tilted bill, a high crown to the head and a neck that is often curved.

The plumage is very different as between summer and winter. In summer, the head, neck and upper breast are black, with chestnut flanks and lighter underparts. However, the most distinctive feature is the prominent tuft of golden feathers fanning out behind each eye, which is red. It is these tufts that give the bird the name “eared grebe”, although they are obviously not ears!

In winter, the tufts disappear and the bird becomes much plainer. The upper part of the head stays black, as does the back, but the neck and the rest of the body become much lighter. The only colour to be seen is the red of the eyes.

There is no obvious difference in appearance between male and female black-necked grebes, at any time of the year.


Behaviour

The black-necked grebe is very much a water bird. Like other grebes, its legs are set well back on the body, which makes it difficult for the bird to walk on land.

It is a reluctant flyer, except when in transit to and from its breeding grounds.

The black-necked grebe is a shy bird, preferring to stay hidden if possible. It is a gregarious bird, both while nesting and in the winter.

It has a whistling “poo-eee” call and a harsh chatter.


Breeding Behaviour

Pairs of black-necked grebes arrive at the nesting grounds in March or April and perform a courtship display in which the birds swim at speed towards each other, shaking their heads.

The nest comprises a mass of rotting vegetation, positioned either in the reeds at the water’s edge or floating within a few feet of the shore. The nest is built by the female black-necked grebe from material brought by the male.

Three to five eggs are laid at any time between April and June, with both partners sharing the incubation for up to 23 days. A second brood is often raised.

The nestlings are carried on their parents’ backs for several weeks before they are ready to swim for themselves.


Feeding

Black-necked grebes often feed on insects that are skimmed from the surface of the water. They will also dive from the surface for food such as tadpoles and small fish, hunting for them at no more than two metres down. Also taken are molluscs and crustaceans.


Conservation Status

The black-necked grebe has amber status in the United Kingdom, due to the small number of breeding pairs and wintering birds. The breeding habitat of reedbeds is one that is always under threat from human activity, and so all bird species that make use of them are similarly threatened.

© John Welford

Blackbird

The blackbird (Turdus merula) is one of the commonest garden birds in Britain, being found throughout the whole country. There are very few gardens in town or country that do not have at least one resident or visiting pair. Blackbirds can be seen throughout the year, even in the depths of winter, although some in more northerly areas move south in the Autumn.

Appearance

The male adult is glossy black with a bright yellow bill. In summer, the wings are browner. The female is dark brown on the wings and upper body, and somewhat lighter below, and its bill is a duller yellow colour than that of the male.

Males and females are similar in size, about 24-27 cm in length (about 10 inches).

Behaviour and breeding

Blackbirds often fly low to the ground, flicking their wings then gliding. The flight can look weak, but they can also fly strongly at greater heights. As they land, a blackbird will raise its tail in a fan and its wings will droop. On the ground it is happy to hop or run for long periods if there is no danger, pausing with its head cocked to one side as if listening, with its tail up.

The "speaking" voice is either a scolding "chik-chik-chik" or a deeper "chook-chook-chook", but it also has a beautiful singing voice, this being a clear fluty warble that ends in a low chuckle. You always know when there is a cat in the garden that is getting too close to a nest, because the blackbird can produce a hysterical screech that drowns out just about everything else!

Blackbirds nest in trees and hedges, and also in sheds and holes in walls. They breed from March to August, and can produce up to five broods in a season, laying 3-5 eggs each time.

Although blackbirds are usually seen in pairs, one can sometimes see mixed groups outside the breeding season, possibly consisting of adult families. Other birds do not feel threatened by blackbirds, which are happy to feed alongside most other species, although they are often intimidated by jackdaws.

If you feed your garden birds regularly, blackbirds can become quite tame. Our resident pair, especially the male, regularly hops up close to the house, even though our cat could pop out at any time. The blackbird is usually the last to fly off when a cat turns up to cross the garden.

Feeding

Blackbirds only feed from the ground or bird tables, as they are nobody's acrobats. We usually hang "fat balls" from hooks on posts in the garden, which the local jackdaws have learned how to tackle. However, jackdaws are messy feeders, and plenty of food usually falls to the ground, where the blackbirds are happy to pick up the pieces. They are also the birds most likely to attack windfall apples. They also eat worms, insects, slugs and snails. When eating slugs, blackbirds hate the slime so will carefully wipe it off the slug before eating it.

A family recently seen in our garden consisted of the parent birds and three fledglings who were reluctant to leave home. One of the youngsters refused to find food for him/herself and waited for mum to feed him, although the other two would happily root around in the undergrowth and find food for themselves. However, when mum returned all three would mob her in the hope of a free meal.

© John Welford

Sterna hirundo (common tern)

The common tern (Sterna hirundo) is notable for its long forked tail and graceful flight, which has led to its nickname of “sea swallow”. It is similar in appearance to the Arctic tern, although it has a longer bill and legs.

The common tern is a migratory bird that breeds over much of Europe, except for the far north, and winters in West Africa, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Some birds fly as far south as Madagascar.

Within the United Kingdom the common tern can be seen on shingle coastal beaches in England, Wales and Scotland, or inland on rivers with shingle banks and bars. It also breeds close to freshwater lakes, reservoirs and flooded gravel pits.

The common tern has amber conservation status in the UK due to constant threats to its habitat.


Appearance

Male and female common terns are very similar in appearance, being about 35 centimetres (14 inches) long and slender in shape. In summer the common tern has an orange-red bill with a black tip which in winter becomes almost black with a red base. The red legs are duller in winter than summer.

The plumage of the common tern is silvery-grey above and white or grey below, with a prominent black cap that extends from the bill to the nape of the neck. In winter the forehead becomes white and the front part of the crown is streaked with white and black.


Behaviour

The flight is buoyant with deliberate wing-beats. The common tern can hover over water before it dives to catch a fish. It swims only rarely, and on land can only waddle in a gawky fashion.

The common tern is very noisy, especially when gathered into breeding colonies, having a variety of calls including a grating “kee-ya”, an excited “kiri-kiri” and a harsh “kik-kik”.

Food for common terns consists almost exclusively of fish, although young birds may also be fed with insects, larvae and other invertebrates. When fishing, the common tern will hover with head down, scanning the surface of the water. When a fish is sighted the bird will plunge down, often disappearing from sight and re-emerging with the prize in its bill.


Breeding

The common tern returns to its breeding grounds in late April or early May, arriving in large groups. Pairs then form after the males have performed their courtship flights. Nests are built in colonies, often on mud, the nest being a shallow depression that is lined with plant material such as twigs, grass and reeds.

The clutch usually comprises three eggs, laid in May or June. Incubation, for up to 26 days, is done by both birds in turn, after which they also share the feeding of the chicks. This time is often a good one for spotting common terns, because they will fly some distance to gather food for the chicks. Only one brood is raised.

Common terns leave for their winter quarters in late July or August, although some southern European birds may stay until September or even October.

© John Welford

Chiffchaff

The chiffchaff (Phylloscopus collybita) is a member of the warbler family, being similar in appearance to the willow warbler but less brightly coloured. It is resident in southern England, south Wales and the far south of Ireland but is only a summer visitor in other parts of the UK. It is seen only very rarely in northern Scotland. Outside the UK, chiffchaffs are found throughout Europe, with the Mediterranean region being a typical area for wintering. The range is from north Africa to northern Siberia.


Appearance and behaviour

The chiffchaff is about 11 centimetres long (a little over 4 inches). It has olive-brown upperparts and buff underparts, although the colouring changes as the year advances, with the back becoming browner and the chest whiter in the summer. Like all warblers, the chiffchaff has a pronounced marking above the eye from front to back, known as a supercillium, the line being light yellow in this case. Males and females have similar plumage.

The chiffchaff takes its name from its song, which is a constant repetition of “chiff” and “chaff”, although it also has a strong call of “hweet”.

The chiffchaff is typically found in lowland woodland and in parks and gardens that are well supplied with trees. It spends most of its time in the trees, flitting from branch to branch, flicking its wings and wagging its tail. It feeds mainly on insects, which it either finds on tree trunks and branches or takes from the air.


Breeding

Despite being a tree dweller, the chiffchaff nests on the ground. The nest is a domed enclosed structure of leaves and grass that is well camouflaged and entered via a small side opening. The female does all the nest building herself, and she also does nearly all the incubating of the eggs and raising of the chicks.

The clutch, laid between May and July, consists of six or seven eggs that take around 14 days to hatch. The young stay in the nest for up to 15 days, after which they remain close to the nest and are still fed by their parents for a short while longer. As well as insects, the chicks are fed on larvae and spiders. A second brood may be raised.

Non-resident birds will leave for winter quarters around late September, although departure can be as late as November if conditions permit.

© John Welford

Black redstart

The black redstart (Phoenicurus ochuros) is, as the name suggests, distinguished by the black and red colours in its plumage, although this applies mainly to male birds. Although a few pairs breed in the UK, it is more likely to be seen as a winter visitor or during its spring or autumn migrations to central Europe. A good place to see black redstarts in autumn in Britain is Cornwall and the Isles of Scilly.

Although the few breeding birds in the UK are usually seen inland, wintering black redstarts are more often to be found in coastal locations, on cliffs, in quarries and ruined coastal buildings.

The black redstart is similar in size to the robin, at 14 to 15 centimetres (just over five and a half inches) in length. The longish, broad, square-ended tail is its most prominent feature, orange-red at the sides with a brown centre. Indeed, the word “start” is close to the Old English word for tail. Female birds also have red tails, although the colour is not as bright as in male black redstarts.

The plumage of male birds is grey-black, with the black being darkest on the throat. The top of the head and the back are greyer, with the chest speckled in grey and black. The winter plumage is more grey than black. The wings are black with white patches. Female black redstarts are mostly brown, darker above than below.

The black redstart was originally a cliff-dwelling bird, and, like another former cliff-dweller, the feral pigeon, it has taken to urban and industrial habitats where tall buildings take the place of cliffs. Nests are built in wall crevices, behind drainpipes or on windowsills. Black redstarts like to return to the same nest site every year, and will do so for the whole of their lives.

The nest is built from twigs, stalks, roots, leaves and mud, and lined with dry hairs. The clutch, laid between April and July, comprises four to six eggs, which are incubated by the female alone for up to 14 days. The male black redstart will not be far away, singing away on a high perch. The young will leave the nest after about 12 days, before they have fledged. A second brood is often raised. The non-wintering birds will leave in October for winter quarters in the Mediterranean area.

Black redstarts feed their young on insects caught on the wing. Adult birds will also eat crustaceans, worms, spiders, seeds and berries.

The small number of breeding pairs, often no more than fifty throughout the country, places the black redstart on the amber list of species of concern in terms of conservation.

© John Welford

Cuckoo

One of the traditional signs that summer is on its way in Great Britain is the letter in the newspaper that claims that the voice of the cuckoo has been heard in the land. It has to be just about the most distinctive bird call there is, sounding like the name of the bird.

However, it is not heard in the countryside as often as it used to be, and it is now on the “red list” of endangered birds as recorded by the RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds). There are reckoned to be fewer than 20,000 breeding pairs in the whole country in any one year, and that could be a large overestimate.

The cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) is about the size of a dove at around 33 centimetres in length. Adult males are grey on the head and upper body, and the chest is white with grey bars. The wings and tail are mostly grey. Young birds, and some females, have somewhat browner plumage. In flight, cuckoos can easily be mistaken for sparrowhawks.

The familiar “cuckoo” call is uttered only by male birds, who arrive in Britain from Africa in mid-April, some days before the females. The female call is more like a chuckle, similar to that of the woodpecker.

Cuckoos are more likely to be found in southern and central England than elsewhere in the UK, and prefer woods, parkland and reed beds to other habitats.

The cuckoo is renowned for being a social parasite, in that it does not build a nest for itself but uses that of another bird. A female cuckoo is quite likely to choose a nest that belongs to the same species that she was raised by herself. This is probably going to be one of about 20 species of songbirds, with meadow pipits, dunnocks and robins being frequent victims. However, cuckoo eggs have been found in the nests of more than 150 bird species.

Cuckoo eggs are quite small in proportion to the size of the bird, and the shells tend to be thicker than those of other birds. This makes it possible for the female cuckoo either to lay her egg directly in the “host” nest or to lay it elsewhere and drop it into the nest where it will not break if dropped from a height (although it could break any other eggs that are already there). She will observe when adult birds leave a nest unattended for just a few seconds and take her opportunity. If undisturbed, the cuckoo may remove eggs from the host nest. She will only ever lay one egg in a nest, but may repeat the trick as many as 25 times during the breeding season.

Not all “host” birds fall for the cuckoo’s trickery, and it could be that a bird remembers a previous experience and is on the lookout for a repeat performance. Many cuckoos are chased away from nests despite their greater relative size, and some birds will eject a cuckoo’s egg if they discover it, or abandon a “violated” nest and start again elsewhere. Some redstarts have been known to cover all the eggs in a clutch, their own as well as that of the cuckoo, with a new lining and start laying a fresh clutch on top.

However, when the trick works and a cuckoo chick is hatched in the nest of another species, its instinct, soon after hatching, is to ensure that it has the nest all to itself. It is able to throw from the nest any unhatched eggs or nestlings that belong to the unwitting foster parents, this instinct being strong for three or four days. It will now receive all the food that the parent birds would have expected to feed to a whole family of their own offspring, and thus grows rapidly. The young cuckoo will demand food for several weeks after it has left the nest, which is far longer than the foster parents would have done had they been raising their own flesh and blood.

When fledged, the cuckoo feeds mainly on hairy caterpillars, a food source that is clearly seasonal, as these will pupate later in the summer. Cuckoos may fly south as early as mid-July, and will certainly have gone by mid-September. Young birds tend to leave later than adults who have bred during the spring or early summer.

One wonders if cuckoos would really be such welcome visitors, from the human perspective, if they had a less pleasant call that is so easily transferred to musical expression, particularly on the oboe. However, the decline in their numbers, down by some 60% since the 1960s, is a cause for concern whatever the species and whatever its habits, and we need to do whatever we can to preserve the habitats of this remarkable bird.

© John Welford

Chough

The chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) looks similar to the crow, but is distinguished by its unmistakable red legs and feet and curved red bill. It is only seen in coastal and mountainous areas, and, within the British Isles, generally only in west Wales, western Ireland, south-west Scotland and the Isle of Man. It was formerly common in Cornwall, and indeed features prominently on the coat of arms of Cornwall, but had all but disappeared by the 1950s. Recently, it has returned to parts of Cornwall.

Within the established breeding areas sightings are by no means unusual, as choughs tend to congregate in groups, either on cliff tops or high in the mountains of Snowdonia, for example, where they will stay even in winter. Despite the chough’s liking of coastal habitats it is not a sea bird, and fish is not part of its diet. However, they may sometimes be seen on the upper parts of beaches, turning over old seaweed to search for insects.


Appearance and behaviour

Choughs are up to 38 centimetres (15 inches) in length, which makes them larger than jackdaws but smaller than crows or rooks. The plumage, which is similar in males and females, is glossy blue-back, with a greenish sheen on the wings and tail. The wings are broad, and in flight they are curved upwards with the ends outspread, which gives them a somewhat ragged look. The flight is strong and acrobatic, including soaring and gliding, and sometimes diving with the wings almost closed. On the ground, choughs will run, walk or hop.


Breeding

Choughs are monogamous, with pairs tending to stay together both in and out of the breeding season, even as part of larger colonies. Nests are built in late April or May, in the rocky crevices of cliffs, caves or quarries, or on old stone buildings such as castle ruins or church steeples. Nests comprise twigs, roots, and softer lining material such as wool and hair. The same nest may be used another year, but with a fresh lining.

The clutch is usually three to six eggs, laid at intervals of between one and three days, which are incubated solely by the female bird for up to 21 days. At first only the male chough brings food to the nest, but later both parents do so. The food is insects and larvae, regurgitated by the parent bird. Observers have noted that choughs are sparing in their parental duties in that they only make around seven foraging expeditions apiece each day. Only one brood is raised each season.

The young fledge at around 35 days but stay close at hand for some time longer, returning to the nest to roost at night for as much as two months after fledging. After this they tend to form flocks with other young birds and may roam with the flock several miles from their birthplace. Mortality is quite high among young choughs, with many perishing within the first six months. They will only reach breeding age themselves at two to four years.


Conservation

The chough is a protected species in the United Kingdom and is regarded as having “amber” conservation status. The main threat to choughs today is farming methods that have removed many of the chough’s preferred feeding areas. The bird uses its curved bill to dig into the turf to find insects and larvae just under the surface. This was traditionally helped by cliff top grazing that kept the grass short and left animal dung that in turn provided insect habitats. However, with more intensive farming methods the grass has been allowed to grow longer and has thus prevented choughs from digging underneath it. Even treating cattle with anti-parasitic drugs can affect choughs, as the droppings will no longer contain a ready food source for the birds.

The chough is one of many fascinating bird species that are endangered by practices that might be beneficial from one perspective but not others. By careful management of the natural environment in ways that benefit humans and birds alike, future generations will be able to continue seeing the red-footed birds of the cliff tops and mountain slopes.

© John Welford

Black guillemot

The black guillemot (Cepphus grylle) is much less common in the British Isles than its “non-black” guillemot cousin. It is, however, widely distributed in northern Europe and Asia and in North America. In the UK, the highest numbers are seen in the northern isles and down the west coast of Scotland. It is also seen on Irish coasts and the Isle of Man.

The black guillemot can be easily distinguished from the guillemot by its plumage, especially in summer. Whereas the guillemot has a prominent black back and white front, the black guillemot is black all over except for a large white oval-shaped wing patch that is very noticeable both in flight and at rest. Also, the black guillemot has bright red legs and inside the mouth. Males and females have very similar plumage.

The black guillemot’s winter plumage is very different from that seen in the summer. Much of the black is lost, leaving white with black mottling.

The call of the black guillemot is a high-pitched whistle or whining sound.

Other differences between the black guillemot and the guillemot include the size. The black guillemot is noticeably smaller at around 33-35 centimetres in length (13 to 14 inches). It also has a smaller bill, and it walks more easily, with the feet not set so far back. It is also far less gregarious, often being seen alone, in pairs or in small groups.

Black guillemots stay at sea outside the breeding season, but not far from land. When the snow and ice have melted, which can be well into April in some parts of their range, they come ashore to seek nesting sites, in rocky crevices, on ledges or even in burrows left by puffins. They do not form huge breeding colonies, but up to a hundred pairs may be found in fairly close proximity.

The clutch is usually of two eggs laid on the bare rock, sometimes wedged with small stones to prevent them rolling away. Both partners incubate the eggs, which take up to 30 days to hatch. The young birds take food from their parents three to five times a day, for around 35 days. Typically, they leave the nest at night and make straight for the sea. Only one brood is raised per season.

The diet of the black guillemot is mainly fish, with molluscs and crustaceans also being eaten.

The black guillemot has “amber status” in terms of its vulnerability as a species, although the number of breeding pairs in the areas mentioned above is in the tens of thousands. The threat is largely due to the severe effect that oil spills can have on seabird populations. In the past, ships cleaning their oil tanks at sea have caused serious problems.

© John Welford

Bittern

The bittern (Botaurus stellaris) is a stocky, thickset heron that is best known for its booming call that can carry for a mile or more in spring. It is a bird that is more often heard than seen.

Distribution

The species discussed here is also known as the “Eurasian bittern” or “great bittern”, and is not to be confused with species that are more common in other parts of the world such as the “yellow bittern” or “American bittern”.

The bittern is found throughout Europe except the far north. In Britain it is resident in only a few places, namely wetland reserves in Lancashire, East Anglia and the Thames Estuary. 

It winters in other parts of southern England. It lives in reedbeds next to lakes and rivers.

Appearance

The bittern is 75 centimetres (30 inches) in length. Its plumage is golden brown and buff, being striped and mottled with darker feathers. The crown of the head is dark brown and the throat and underside much lighter. The bill is pale yellow and the legs green. The wings are broad and rounded. Males and females look alike. Younger birds are lighter in colour.

Behaviour

The bittern’s flight is owl-like with leisurely, deep wing beats. The neck is retracted but the legs trail behind.

On the ground, the bittern walks with deliberate, high steps, the head being lowered and the shoulders hunched. It will sometimes stand stock still before taking the next step.

The bittern is well camouflaged against the reeds, and it has a way of making its presence even more difficult to detect. It stretches its neck to the full extent with the bill pointing skywards, but is able to swivel its eyes so that they look forwards at the potential threat. It will also sway from side to side in time with the reeds if a breeze is blowing. It can stay in this upright posture for an hour or more at a time.

Bitterns feed on fish, frogs, tadpoles, insects and larvae.

Breeding

Bitterns arrive at their nesting site in March or April, which is when the males announce their presence with the famous booming call. Male bitterns may attract and mate with several females.

The nest is built in the reeds by the female bittern alone, comprising a flat pile of reed stalks. Five or six eggs are laid and incubated by the female with no help from her partner. The chicks hatch after about 25 days and are fed, again only by the female, with regurgitated food. The chicks are fully fledged at eight weeks old.

Only one brood is raised.

Conservation Status

The bittern has red status in the UK as a bird that is under considerable threat. This is mainly due to loss of the bittern’s very specific habitat. The RSPB (Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) is taking active steps to preserve the species at its wetland reserves at Minsmere (Suffolk) and Leighton Moss (Lancashire).

This page of the RSPB website includes a recording of the booming call, a short video, and much more information.

© John Welford