Goshawk

 

The goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) is present all the year round in upland forested areas of northern and southern Scotland and northern England. A very efficient killer, it swoops through trees to take its prey unawares, killing its prey with its powerful claws. It is often trained as a captive falcon.

Adult males and females are similar in appearance to female sparrowhawks, but are considerably larger. One difference is that, unlike the sparrowhawk, they have a whitish streak running from the eye to the ear coverts. The overall plumage is brown on top and light-coloured with darker bars underneath. Male goshawks are up to 20 inches (50 cm) in size, and the larger females up to 24 inches (60 cm).

Goshawks take larger prey than sparrowhawks, such as wood pigeons, crows, rats and hares.

The wing strokes are usually long and slow in their display flight. When hunting, goshawks fly swiftly and surely between trees.

Goshawk nests are substantial platforms of sticks, lined with green leaves or pine needles. 3 to 5 eggs are laid, usually in April or May. Incubation, almost entirely by the female, takes upwards of five weeks. The chicks are fed at first on morsels of food brought to the nest by the male but given to them by the female. As the chicks grow and demand more food, both parents provide it.

© John Welford

Montagu's harrier

 

Montagu’s harrier (Circus pygargus) is very similar in appearance to the hen harrier, and was only recognised as a separate species in 1802 by the Devon naturalist George Montagu, hence the name. The hen harrier is far more common in the United Kingdom, with Montagu’s Harrier being one of Britain’s rarest breeding birds, limited to a few pairs in southern England.

Adult male Montagu’s harriers, which are more slightly built than hen harriers, are up to 16 inches (40 cm) in length. They have black wing-bars and brown streaks on the whitish underwings and flanks. The upperparts are grey and underparts white. Females are brown above and white streaked with brown below, with a narrow white rump patch.

The flight is buoyant with the wings raised in a shallow V.

Montagu’s harriers often perch on posts that overlook grassland as they scan the ground for prey that includes insects and small mammals.

The Montagu’s harrier winters in Mediterranean regions and tropical Africa and those that nest in Great Britain arrive in April, settling down in pairs by the end of May or early June. The nest will be on the ground among vegetation in any kind of open country, including farmland and sand dunes.

The eggs are laid at intervals of up to three days with incubation beginning as soon as the first egg is laid. The young hatch at the same intervals after four weeks.

The female greets the male as he brings food for her and the hatched chicks. The prey is passed from foot to foot in midair or, if dropped by the male, will be caught by the female before it hits the ground. She will share the hunting after around three weeks. The chicks fledge at around five weeks and all the birds will fly south in September.

© John Welford

Red-breasted merganser

 

The red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator) is one of only two species of sawbill duck (the other being the goosander) that breeds in the British Isles. The red-breasted merganser has a long history of residence in Scotland and Ireland. However, since about 1950 they have spread into England, breeding as far south as Derbyshire and also into Wales.

Red-breasted mergansers grow to around 23 inches (58 cm) in length. Adult males have dark green heads and reddish-brown breasts and necks. The head has a double crest. Females are brown on the head and neck, the colouring merging into the breast. Their white wing patches are most noticeable in flight.

Flight is fast and direct, with the neck and body outstretched to produce a long, narrow shape.

The term ‘sawbill’ refers to the finely serrated cutting edges on the bills that enable red-breasted mergansers to grasp slippery fish. When fishing, they often swim with the head under water before diving to catch their prey.

Red-breasted mergansers have suffered persecution in the past due to their liking for young trout and salmon. However, they also eat species including eels, perch and pike which prey on the eggs and young of salmon and trout.

The nest is a shallow depression in the ground, lined with grass, leaves and down, that is sited near a river or lake and often in thick vegetation which makes it difficult for a predator to find. From late April to early July the female lays and incubates 8 to 10 eggs that take a month to hatch. When she leaves the nest to feed, she camouflages the eggs with down. When hatched, the ducklings are attended to by the female on her own. They can fly around two months after they hatch. Only one brood is reared each year.

© John Welford

Anhingas (darters)

 

The Anhingidae family of birds is closely related to other families within the Sulae suborder, which includes gannets, boobies, cormorants and shags. However, the four species that comprise the Anhingidae show several features that set them apart from birds such as the cormorant to which they might, at first sight, appear to be similar.

 

The four species are the anhinga or American darter (Anhinga anhinga), the Oriental or Indian darter (Anhinga melanogaster), the African darter (Anhinga rufa) and the  Australasian or Australian darter (Anhinga novaehollandiae). They are long, slim water birds that inhabit tree-lined margins of freshwater lakes and rivers in tropical and warm temperate regions, only rarely being found in brackish waters. Their regional distributions are suggested by their names, but the differences between the species are not all that great. Indeed, they can almost be thought of as four subspecies of a widely distributed species, the anhinga or darter, which is also sometimes called the snakebird. Another name used in the United States is water turkey, which is strange in that any presumed resemblance to a turkey must be the product of a very vivid imagination! However, this may have something to do with the anhinga’s appearance on the Southern table as meat.

 

The anhinga is between 32 and 36 inches in length, which makes it similar in size to a cormorant, but their heads are slimmer, their bills longer and thinner and unhooked, their necks longer, and their body feathers thicker. Males and females are differently coloured, unlike cormorants. However, one feature that anhingas have in common with cormorants is that their flight feathers are relatively permeable to water, so they need to spread their wings to dry after they have been swimming. They also lack air sacs under the skin and have quite heavy bones, which is an aid when diving.

 

Female anhingas tend to be slightly larger than the males, but with smaller bills. Males have generally dark plumage with the females being lighter in colouring.

 

Anhingas are strong fliers, with steady and rapid wingbeats, but they glide and climb more than cormorants. They can sometimes be seen riding warm air currents several hundred feet up, with wings outstretched and necks and legs extended, thus forming a cross shape.

 

Anhingas from the northern part of their North American range will fly south for the winter, which is when they are sometimes found in more brackish waters.

 

Anhingas only enter the water to escape from danger or to feed. They can swim completely underwater, with nostrils closed, or with the body submerged and only the head and neck above the surface. This latter mode is what gives them the “snakebird” epithet.

 

The name “darter” is equally well deserved, as this refers to the bird’s method of catching their prey. The neck will be held in an S-shape and the rapier-like beak thrust suddenly forwards to spear a fish. This is then brought to the surface, tossed in the air, caught again and swallowed whole. Other prey includes frogs and salamanders, which are speared and then beaten to death against a rock. Crayfish and water insects also form part of the diet.

 

Anhingas nest in small colonies, often alongside ibises and herons. A bulky nest of sticks, lined with green leaves, is built in a bush or tree, anything from three to thirty feet above the water. The average clutch size is four eggs, although this can be as few as two or as many as six. Incubation, by both parents, can take up to four weeks, after which the chicks are fed by food regurgitated by a parent bird.

 

The chicks are born blind and naked, but are able to leave the nest when two weeks old, should the need arise. If danger threatens, a chick is able to fall into the water and swim ashore, although they are then very vulnerable to predators such as alligators. A chick can climb back to the nest by using its wings and neck as well as its feet.

 

Young anhingas fledge at six to eight weeks, staying close to the nest until they are ready.

© John Welford

Hamerkop

The hamerkop (Scopus umbretta) has a number of alternative names, including hammerhead stork, umbrette, tufted umber and anvilhead. It is the only member of the Scopus genus and Scopidae family, although it has posed a problem over whether this family should be classed with the order of Ciconiformes (which includes storks) or Pelecaniformes (which includes pelicans and herons).

The hamerkop shows some stork-like features, such as flying with its neck extended and its lack of powder down, but its voice organs are heron-like and it has teeth on the outer edge of its middle claw, which is again a heron-like feature. The consensus appears to be that the hamerkop represents one of the missing links between storks and herons, so its status in terms of order remains in doubt.

The hamerkop is a wading bird that is found in many parts of tropical Africa, Madagascar and southwest Arabia. It inhabits wetlands that include rice paddies, irrigation ditches or roadside pools, and will migrate locally as suitable environments appear and disappear.

Hamerkops have gained a measure of protection from the superstitions and legends that have arisen about them in some parts of their range. It is widely believed, for example, that harming a hamerkop will bring bad luck. To the bushmen of the Kalahari region, the hamerkop is the “lightning bird”, and robbing a hamerkop nest will increase one’s chance of being struck by lightning.

Appearance and behaviour

The hamerkop is about 20 inches long and resembles a heron in its overall shape, but with comparatively shorter legs. It is brownish in colour with glossy purplish tinges on the wings and back. Its large head is set on a somewhat short and thick neck. The long, flat and slightly hooked bill, coupled with the prominent crest on the back of the head, give the bird its name, as the head is not unlike the shape of the head of a hammer (hamer kop is Afrikaans for “hammer head”). 

The hamerkop behaves in rather peculiar ways from time to time. A small group may dance around each other for no obvious reason, calling loudly, before they appear to bow to each other, pull their heads back and resume standing silently apart. 

Hamerkops have a varied diet, including water insects, worms, molluscs, small fish and amphibians. They are often most active in the evenings and can also be nocturnal.

Breeding

The hamerkop’s most remarkable feature is its compulsive nest building, which even takes place outside the breeding season. The nest is a vast structure, as much as six feet in diameter, that is a flattened covered dome with a side entrance. A pair of hamerkops can spend several months building a nest, which can comprise as many as 10,000 sticks in its construction, and when it is finished they may start work on another. Great care is taken in decorating the outside of a nest with objects found by the birds, much as a magpie might do to the inside, these items being anything that is highly coloured and takes the birds’ fancy.

When breeding, the female hamerkop will lay three to six eggs deep inside the nest and both partners will incubate them in turn for up to 30 days. Both parents will feed the nestlings, who can be left alone for long periods while the parents look for food, secure in the knowledge that the fortress-like nest provides excellent protection. The young birds are ready to leave the nest at around 50 days but will continue to roost in it for several months longer.

Unused hamerkop nests are often taken over by other bird and animal species, including snakes, and sometimes a bird such as an eagle owl will eject a hamerkop pair from their nest, only for them to return when the squatter has finished with it. 

© John Welford

Jaçanas

 

Jaçanas are tropical and sub-tropical waders of the order Charadriiformes, comprising eight species divided between six genera. They are found in central and southern America, southern Africa, south-east Asia and northern Australia. Their preferred habitat is freshwater pools and lakes, where they are skilled at walking on lily leaves and other floating vegetation, thanks to their exceptionally long toes and claws.

The name jaçana came originally from the Tupi people of the Amazon basin, but is now a Portuguese word pronounced “zhasana” with the emphasis on the first and last syllables. Other names for these birds are “lily trotters” and “lotus birds”.

 

Appearance

The American, or northern, jaçana (Jacana spinoso), which is found in Mexico, the West Indies, and as far south as Panama, is about 10 inches in length and cinnamon-red in colour with greenish-yellow flight feathers. The head and neck are black and the head has a bright yellow frontal shield. This shield, similar to that found on coots and gallinules, is typical of jaçana species, as is the sharp spur on the bend of the wing that is used for fighting.

Other species vary in size, from the African jaçana (Actophilornis africana – see photo) at 12 inches to the pheasant-tailed jaçana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus, from Asia) that is 20 inches long thanks to its tail that is the same length as its body. The latter is also the most striking in appearance, with a bronze-brown back, black underparts, white face and neck, yellow nape and white wing patches. Although male and female jaçanas are similar in colour, the females are generally larger.

 

Behaviour

In flight, jaçanas resemble gallinules with their necks stretched forwards and legs trailing behind.

They are generally quiet birds, having a variety of grunts and whistles. However, when arguing over territory they can be much noisier as they scold and threaten each other with wings raised.

Their confidence in being able to walk on floating vegetation has made them approachable to quiet close distances. However, when alarmed jaçanas will either freeze or swim away. They can even dive if they have to.

Outside the breeding season, jaçanas congregate in small flocks and can be seen seen flying low over lakes and marshes. When they land, a typical behaviour is to stretch the wings right over the back until the tips nearly meet.

Jaçanas feed on insects, molluscs and small fish.

 

Breeding

A jaçana nest is a loose floating mass of vegetation that can easily drift in the wind. The usual clutch is four eggs which take around three to four weeks to hatch, with the male bird doing most of the incubating. He is also more active than the female in caring for the chicks when they hatch.

© John Welford

Long-tailed duck

 

The long-tailed duck (Clangula hyemalis) is a distinctive but rarely seen duck because it usually keeps well out to sea. It winters in waters around the northern coasts of Britain from October to May, when it leaves for its breeding grounds in northern Scandinavia. However, it has also been known to breed in Scotland.

The plumage of the long-tail duck is brown and white. The male moults gradually throughout the year and by midsummer its head and neck are dark but the face remains white. The female has dark cheek patches. Only males have the distinctive long, upright tail. Males grow to 21 inches (53 cm) in length and females to 16 inches (40 cm).

Both sexes are recognised in flight by the absence of bars on their wings and by their unusual flying action, with shallow wing upstrokes but deep downstrokes.

The voice of the male long-tailed duck is extraordinary among ducks for its melodious, resonant and far-carrying quality. The variety of its calls is also remarkable – the calls of a displaying flock have been likened by some ornithologists to the sound of distant bagpipes.

The nest, a mere scrape in the ground sparsely lined with plant material and down, is usually sited in thick vegetation not far from water; occasionally it is in a rock crevice. Sometimes several broods may join together in a crèche.

Six to nine olive-buff eggs are incubated for about 3 ½ weeks. The young become independent after about five weeks.

Long-tailed ducks feed mostly on molluscs and crustaceans, which are gathered by diving. However, vegetable matter such as seeds and leaves is also eaten.

© John Welford

Goldeneye

 

The goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) is normally a winter visitor to the British Isles that breeds in northern Scandinavia and northern Asia. However, it has been known to breed in a small area of northern Scotland.

It is a small duck measuring up to 18 inches (45 cm) in length. The adult male has black and white plumage, its black head showing a green sheen. It has a white spot on each cheek. The female has brown and white plumage. Both sexes have rectangular white wing patches, high foreheads, short bills, and the bright yellow eyes from which they take their name.

Goldeneye in flight have the fast wing beats typical of diving ducks, but they take off more easily than most and the wings produce a pronounced whistling sound which is quite unmistakable.

Wintering goldeneye take to coastal waters, forming large flocks that are mainly of one sex. They rarely come ashore. However, small flocks are sometimes found on larger stretches of inland water.

Bill-raising and water-splashing have been noted as courtship gestures. Goldeneye prefer to nest in tree holes near a lake or river, but will also use rabbit burrows or specially provided nest boxes. It has been known for goldeneye to take over the old nest holes of woodpeckers.

The bottom of the nesting cavity is unlined, but may be insulated with greyish-white down and a few feathers. A typical clutch consists of 6 to 12 smooth, greenish-blue eggs. When they hatch, the young scramble out of the hole and fall to the ground, which can be a considerable distance. They take about eight weeks to fully develop their flight feathers.

© John Welford

Shoveler

 

The shoveler (Anas cylpeata) is a handsome but uncommon bird, present all year round in most of England and southern Scotland and joined by winter migrants in south-west England, Wales and the Grampian area of Scotland.

The shoveler’s patchy distribution is governed partly by the availability of its habitat, namely marshy areas with pools, ditches and other areas of open water that have muddy shallows rich in food.

The shoveler grows up to 20 inches (50 cm) in length. The adult male has a glossy green head, like that of the mallard, but with a white breast and chestnut belly. The adult female has a brown head and body with speckled underparts. The wings of both sexes display a blue shoulder, white bar and green rear patch.

However, the most distinctive feature of the shoveler is the long, rounded, spade-like bill that gives the bird its name. The bill is used in the typical manner of dabbling ducks, sifting large volumes of water to filter out particles of food. This includes buds and seeds of water plants such as reeds and sedges, as well as algae and small molluscs. They will also eat crustaceans, insects, tadpoles and frogspawn. The inside edges of the bill have many comb-like teeth to trap food as water is forced through them.

The nest is a feather or grass-lined hollow in the ground, often in relatively open country but usually close to water. Between seven and 14 pale greenish eggs are laid in a clutch from April onwards. Incubation, performed by the female, takes between three and four weeks. The ducklings are led away from the nest as soon as all of them have hatched and are dry. They soon show signs of developing outsize bills. They can fly when about six or seven weeks old. Only one brood is reared each year.

© John Welford

Teal

 

The teal (Anas crecca) is Britain’s smallest duck. It is widespread throughout the country but thinly distributed. The resident population is increased by passage birds in spring and autumn and by a large migrant population from northern Europe in winter.

It has a grey back, speckled brown chest and white underparts. Male teals have chestnut heads and distinctive green eye patches and black and yellow under-tail feathers. Both male and female teals have black and green wing patches.

Teals grow to 14 inches (36 cm) in length.

Teals fly quickly and with rapid wing beats, giving the impression of great haste. They often fly in tightly packed irregular groups. They are very agile and will spring vertically into the air when alarmed.

Teal drakes have a distinctive musical, bell-like call.

They are typical dabbling ducks, feeding on the surface while swimming or walking in the shallows, sifting seeds of water and marsh plants from the water with a nibbling action of the bill. They may occasionally upend in deeper water to reach below the surface.

The teal nest is hidden in deep cover with every effort made to avoid drawing attention to it. The conspicuous male bird therefore never visits the nest and the female only does so after ensuring that she has not been observed. Teal ducklings rarely venture into open water.

© John Welford

Wigeon

 

The wigeon (Anas penelope) is a duck that is present all the year round throughout the United Kingdom and Ireland but it only breeds in northern Scotland and the Northern Pennines of England. The main breeding area of the species is a wide Arctic and sub-Arctic belt that includes Iceland and Norway.

It measures up to 18 inches (48 cm) in length.

Male wigeons have a grey back and sides, chestnut head and chest with a pale crown, white underparts, and dark grey wings with white shoulders and green wing patches.

Females are more uniformly brown.

Wigeons fly in formations of hundreds, forming irregular lines, when moving along estuaries or mud-flats.

Male birds make a loud and musical whee-oo sound, whereas females emit a purring growl.

The typical habitat of wigeons is fresh water that is shallow and still, although they also nest by rivers and on coastal marshlands. When available, islands are often chosen for breeding as they afford protection against predatory mammals.

They are somewhat unusual among ducks in that they often graze on grass like geese, although they also feed in water and occasionally up-end in more conventional duck fashion.

The nest is a shallow hollow, lined with leaves, grass and down and sited on the ground beneath overhanging tussocks or shrubs. 7 to 9 eggs are incubated by the duck for 3 to 3 ½ weeks.

© John Welford

Canada goose

 

The Canada goose (Branta canadensis) is a large bird, measuring 36-40 inches (90-100 cm) in length. It is easily recognised from its black head and neck, and white chin-patch. The sexes are alike. Juvenile birds have duller chin-patches and more mottled upper parts than adults, but plumage from the first winter resembles that of adults.

In flight, it is distinctive from its long neck and deep wing-beats.

Despite their size, Canada geese can be unobtrusive when resting or feeding. However, when alarmed one member of a flock may emit a trumpet-like honking that is copied by all the other geese that then take wing, continuing to call as they make for a neighbouring stretch of water.

The nest is a hollow in the ground lined with leaves, grass and down. This is usually at the water’s edge or on an island in a lake. Five or six creamy-white eggs are laid in April or May. The goslings can fly after nine weeks, but the family unit stays together until the following spring.

Canada geese are present throughout the year in almost the whole of England except for Cornwall. They are also seen much less frequently in Scotland, Wales and Ireland.

The first Canada geese were brought across the Atlantic in the 17^th century as decorative birds for lakes in the grounds of large houses. It was later thought that they would make good subjects for wildfowl shooting, but the bird’s attraction as a sporting target was severely lessened by its tameness and habit of flying too low. This is probably why the Canada goose has become as common a wild breeding bird as it now is.

© John Welford

 

Brent goose

 

The Brent goose (Branta bernicla) is a winter visitor to the British Isles from the Arctic tundra. There are two distinct varieties of Brent goose – dark-bellied geese visit the south-east coasts from Russia while pale-bellied geese are seen in north-east England having arrived from Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land. Pale-bellied geese from Greenland pass the winter on the coasts of Ireland.

The Brent goose is black and grey with a noticeable white stern. Adult birds have black heads, necks and breasts with a small white patch on the neck. The back is dark grey-brown. The bill is short and the head narrow. The sexes are alike.

The Brent goose is only slightly larger than the mallard duck, at 22-24 inches (55-60 cm).

Brent geese fly in long wavering lines, usually low above the water or ground. When feeding at sea, where they spend most of their time, they bob like ducks with their white sterns in the air.

In the tundra, they begin nesting before the ice and snow have melted. They lay 3 to 5 eggs which hatch in 3 ½ weeks, and within three months the young birds must be ready to fly south.

Brent geese were once a very common sight in British waters but nearly died out as visitors in the 1930s. One reason for this decline was that disease struck their main winter food plant, the eel-grass that grows on tidal flats and in estuaries around the North Sea. Numbers have recovered in more recent years, thanks to strict protection and recovery of the eel-grass. However, Brent geese will also raid winter cereals to supplement their diet.

© John Welford

Barnacle goose

 

The barnacle goose (Branta leucopsis) is a winter visitor to the British Isles, flocks coming from two separate homelands. Those that visit the Solway Firth area breed on the Arctic island of Spitsbergen. Birds seen in western Scotland and Ireland are from Greenland.

In past times, before people knew where their nesting grounds were, people thought that the birds grew on trees. They also believed that the barnacles seen on floating timber were embryos of the birds, and so came to apply the same name to both the bird and the crustacean.

The barnacle goose is unmistakable, having a white face contrasting with a black crown, neck and breast. The upper parts are grey with white-edged black bars. Juvenile birds have duller head and neck plumage than the adults. The sexes are alike. Barnacle geese are 23-27 inches in length (58-68 cm).

Flocks of barnacle geese often fly in irregular, ragged packs with a chain stringing out behind, but never in regular formation. Both in the air and on the ground, family groups of barnacle geese continually bicker with a yapping noise like that of small dogs. Rarely silent for long, they make most noise when taking flight.

The favourite food of barnacle geese is coastal grass that is periodically flooded by high tides. They will also graze on pastureland.

The mating display includes a characteristic wing-flicking action with the paired birds rushing about and calling loudly as they do so.

Family bonds are strong. Although goslings can soon look after themselves, they stay with their parents until the next breeding season. For the annual migration, family groups join together in large travelling parties.

 © John Welford

 

White-fronted goose

 

The white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons) is a visitor to the United Kingdom from Greenland and Siberia between October and April.

It is perhaps the most easily recognised of the grey geese, with its white forehead ‘blaze’ and its transverse black belly markings. It measures 26-30 inches in length (66-76 cm). The sexes are alike in appearance. In flight, the darker forewing of the white-front distinguishes it from the pink-footed goose.

The plumage of immature birds shows fewer contrasts than the adult’s, and it lacks a white forehead. Orange legs and a paler chest distinguish it from the pink-footed goose.

Those that come to Western Scotland or Ireland are from Greenland, and have orange-yellow bills. Visitors to England breed in the far north of Russia; they have pinkish bills. White-fronted geese favour freshwater marshes and water-meadows during their winter stay in Britain.

In flight, white-fronts may be distinguished by their call, which is higher pitched than that of other common geese. Even shriller in its call is the lesser white-fronted goose (Anser erythropus), which is classed as an ‘accidental’: flocks do not habitually migrate to Britain, but a few arrive among other species almost every year. It breeds in Arctic Scandinavia and Russia, and normally winters in the Balkans and south-west Asia.

Flocks feed at night if the moon is bright. They graze on pastures, plant shoots and grain.

Like greylags, mating white-fronts pair for life, and reinforce their bond by repeating a similar courtship ‘triumph ceremony’ whenever they meet.

The nest is little more than a depression in the ground, lined with grass and down. Incubation takes up to 4 weeks, and the young fledge after 5 to 6 weeks.

© John Welford

Black tern

The black tern (Childonias niger) has been likened to the swallow in its graceful flight over water, beating to and fro and taking insects from just above the surface.

The black tern is a migratory bird that breeds over much of Europe and winters in Africa. Within the United Kingdom it is generally only seen on Spring and Autumn passage, in England and Wales, as it breeds here only very rarely. It is most likely to be seen near freshwater lakes, including reservoirs and flooded gravel pits.


Appearance

Male and female black terns are very similar in appearance, being about 23-25 centimetres (9.5 inches) long. The black tern is therefore similar in size to the little tern, but bulkier in shape. The wings are longer and broader and the tail is only just forked. The bill is black and the legs reddish-brown. The summer plumage is very distinctive, being black on the head, chest and underparts as far back as the underside of the tail, which is white. The upperparts are black towards the front but shading to grey further back. The wings are grey both above and below.

In winter much of the black colouring is lost, leaving a black cap contrasting with white on the face and underparts, and slatey-grey plumage elsewhere.


Breeding

The black tern returns to its breeding grounds in late April or early May, the nesting sites being in dense vegetation close to water, or on islets of vegetation floating on the surface. Breeding colonies are formed with several pairs nesting close together. The nest itself comprises dry reeds and is built by both partners.

The clutch usually comprises three eggs, but sometimes only two, laid in May or June. Should the nest be destroyed, the pair may try again as late as July. Incubation, for up to 17 days, is done by both birds in turn, after which they also share the feeding of the chicks, which they do at frequent intervals.

Black terns leave for their winter quarters in August or early September.

Food for black terns consists mainly of insects, caught on the wing as described above, but they will also take larvae and small fish.

The black tern has amber conservation status in the UK due to constant threats to its habitat and its relative rarity as a visitor.

© John Welford

Blackcap

The blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla) is a member of the warbler family that is common throughout Europe, although in Great Britain it is mainly a migrant, wintering only in the far south of England. However, with winters gradually becoming milder throughout the country, it is quite possible that the blackcap will become a resident species across a much wider range in future. It is also found in Asia, as far east as western Siberia, and also in the Middle East and north Africa.


Appearance and behaviour

It is quite a small bird at around 14 centimetres (5.5 inches) in length, slim in build and with a thin bill and longish tail. The plumage is generally grey, with the upperparts being darker than the underparts. Male birds have a distinctive black cap above the eye (hence the name) which in the females is a chestnut colour. The plumage of the female birds also tends towards a browner shade. In juvenile birds the cap starts as either dark brown (males) or yellowy-brown (females).

The song of the blackcap is particularly fluty and pleasant, which has led to it being known as the “northern nightingale”.

Blackcaps are woodland birds, preferring broadleaved or mixed woods with plenty of undergrowth. However, they can also be seen in parks and overgrown gardens, especially those birds that over-winter.


Breeding

Breeding birds arrive in the UK in April or May and do not return to their wintering grounds until late August or early September. The nest is built in a hedge or bush quite close to the ground; it is woven from twigs and lined with animal hair. The male bird is quite likely to build a second nest which he uses as a perch from which to sing. The clutch is of four to six eggs which are incubated by both birds for up to 14 days. The young are fed by both birds for up to 14 days, the preferred food being non-hairy caterpillars. Feeding continues for a few days after fledging. A second brood is quite likely in July in years when food supplies are plentiful.

The food of the adult blackcap is insects, larvae and spiders, and also berries. Particular favourites among the latter are blueberries, raspberries and elderberries.

© John Welford

Black-headed gull

The black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus) is somewhat mis-named, because its head is much more chocolate-brown than black, and in winter it is not even that. However, the head colouring does make it one of the most distinctive seabirds to be seen on the British coast. It is widespread throughout Europe.

It is also not really accurate to describe it as a seabird, as it is also the commonest “inland” gull, especially in northern England, Wales and Scotland. Many individuals never see the sea throughout their lives. Habitats include gravel pits, moorland bogs, lakes and rivers, and they roam widely over the countryside, often being found on landfill sites in large flocks. They are also common in towns and cities. They can become quite tame in that they will approach people for scraps of food.


Appearance and behaviour

The black-headed gull is one of the smaller gulls, at around 37 centimetres (14.5 inches) long. It has a slim build, rounded head and tail, narrow pointed wings and a thin bill. It is mainly white in colour, with bluish-grey wings that have a white leading edge and black tips. The “black” head, or rather the front part of the head, is white in winter with just a couple of dark smudges. The bill and legs are dark red. Males and females have similar plumage.

The flight is buoyant with fast beats, soaring and gliding. Inland it will follow the plough in flight or walk across the fields.


Breeding

Black-headed gulls winter on lakes and rivers (often on ornamental lakes in towns) and pair up before flying to their breeding grounds, which may or may not be on the coast, in March and April. They are colonial when breeding, often in groups of up to a thousand birds. These colonies can be very noisy places!

The nest, made from grass or reeds, is built by both birds, often on small islands or even as a floating structure. Three eggs is the usual clutch, and these are incubated by both partners for up to 23 days. The offspring will stay in the nest for several days, but if they are disturbed may well abandon the nest and hide in nearby undergrowth or escape by swimming.

Food is brought to the nest by the male, but he often passes it to the female who then distributes it to the chicks. The food is quite varied, including worms, insects, molluscs, invertebrates, small vertebrates, fish, frogs, seeds, and even carrion.

The young are ready to fly at five to six weeks, at which they form flocks with other families. Only one brood is raised in a season.

© John Welford

Black-tailed godwit

The black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa) is a shore bird that is widespread in much of Europe and other parts of the world (including Australasia) but less so in the British Isles. It is found on the coasts of Germany, the Low Countries, Denmark and southern Sweden, and also Iceland and western France. Many birds winter in the Mediterranean region and Africa.

In Britain it is a rare breeder, its breeding grounds being mainly in East Anglia and Shetland. Some birds from northern Europe winter along the east and south coasts of England, and some can be seen on passage during the Autumn.


Appearance and behaviour

The black-tailed godwit is a large wader with a long straight bill that can reach 12 centimetres (nearly 5 inches) in length. From head to tail the bird is about 40 centimetres (15.5 inches) long. It has long legs on which it walks upright and which trail behind in flight.

The plumage, which is similar as between male and female black-tailed godwits, is very different in summer from that seen in winter. The summer plumage is chestnut on the head and breast, lighter and barred further down. The upperparts are mottled dark brown and red-buff, with the upper wings tending towards grey. The tail, not surprisingly, is black-tipped.

In winter all the chestnut and buff colouring disappears, to be replaced by grey-brown above and white below. The wings retain their dark edging and the black of the tail-tip becomes more evident.

The black-tailed godwit is a fast flyer with rapid wing-beats. It walks gracefully with the head held upright except when probing its bill into the mud for food. It will also wade up to its belly with the bill sweeping the shallows from side to side. It is a gregarious bird when feeding.

The black-tailed godwit feeds on insects, larvae, molluscs, worms, spiders and small crustaceans.


Breeding

Black-tailed godwits return to their breeding grounds in March or April, these being inland peat bogs, water meadows and areas adjacent to ponds and lakes. They arrive in small flocks, after which pairs form to stake out their nesting territory. The courtship flight consists of the male flying in circles above the nest site, displaying his tail feathers and emitting a loud call.

A nest is built in April or May, this being a shallow scrape in lush waterside vegetation. A clutch of four well-camouflaged eggs is laid and they are incubated by both partners in turn for around 24 days. Soon after hatching the chicks disperse and hide themselves in the surrounding vegetation. Only one brood is raised.

The black-tailed godwit was once a common breeding bird in the British Isles but breeding ceased in the early 19th century and only resumed in the mid 20th century. Breeding numbers are still very low, which is why the black-tailed godwit has red conservation status.

© John Welford

Black-throated diver

The black-throated diver (Gavia arctica) is less commonly seen in the UK than its red-throated cousin, but is commoner in mainland Europe. It breeds in northwest Scotland and winters around much of the British coast. As might be gathered from its Latin name, its summer breeding grounds extend far to the north, including Greenland, although the November migration extends as far south as the Mediterranean.


Appearance

The black-throated diver is larger than the red-throated diver, and bulkier, but smaller than the great northern diver. It measures around 55-70 centimetres in length (up to 27 inches). It has a more slender bill and thinner neck than the great northern.

The summer plumage of the black-throated diver is similar to that of the great northern, with clearly-defined black and white markings on the back and lighter underneath. However, the head is much lighter in colour, except for the distinctive black throat and black and white stripes up the sides of the neck. The black throat is topped by a short “barcode”. Males and females have similar plumage.

In winter, the three species of diver are much harder to tell apart in terms of plumage. They all have brown heads and backs, although the amount of brown on the heads and necks varies between them, with the black-throated diver having brown plumage to below the eyeline and on the neck, to the half-way point from back to front. The throat and chest are white.


Behaviour and feeding

The black-throated diver is silent in flight but has a loud, rhythmic wailing song.

The black-throated diver, as might be expected, is at home on the water, with its food consisting mainly of fish, for which it dives from the surface. It will take other food, including crustaceans, molluscs and worms, and sometimes frogs. As with many water-based birds, evolution has pushed their legs far back on their bodies, which is fine for swimming and diving but not so good when the bird is on land, where walking is a struggle.


Breeding

Black-throated divers nest on small islands in fresh-water lochs in Scotland, the nest comprising nothing more than a shallow depression in the grass. They are easily disturbed, so, given their slow progress on land, the nests are often perched next to the water so that they can escape quickly if danger threatens.

The clutch, laid in April or May, may be one, two or three eggs, which the parent birds take turns to incubate for around 30 days. When they hatch, the chicks join their parents on the water and the family group stays together for another two months. Larger groups of divers will later make their way to the coast, even before the young are able to fly.

The black-throated diver has amber status in terms of conservation. This is due in part to its limited breeding environment, its slow rate of reproduction (only one small brood per year) and its susceptibility to marine pollution.

© John Welford