Tropic-birds

Tropic-birds were once thought to belong to the Pelecaniformes order that includes pelicans, cormorants, boobies and frigate-birds. However, it is now generally agreed that this classification is wrong and they must be assigned their own order which has been designated the Phaëthontiformes, with the three tropic-bird species belonging to a single family, the Phaëthontidae. The three species are the red-tailed tropic-bird (Phaëthon rubricauda), white-tailed (or yellow-billed) tropic-bird (Phaëthon lepturus) (see picture) and red-billed tropic-bird (Phaëthon aethereus).

As the name suggests, tropic-birds rarely stray beyond the Tropics. They are pelagic birds that spend virtually their whole lives at sea, only coming to land to breed. All three species are found in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, but only the white-tailed and red-billed are seen in the Atlantic Ocean.


Appearance

The largest tropic-bird species is the red-billed, at 24 inches body length, with the white-tailed measuring 16 inches and the red-tailed 19 inches. However, they all have long tail streamers that double their overall length. The streamers resemble marlin spikes, which is why sailors have traditionally named them “bosun’s birds”. The wingspan is between three and four feet.

The bodies of all three species are generally white with black markings on the head and wings, plus the distinguishing features that give each species its name. Young birds lack tail streamers in their first year and their plumage is barred with black.


Behaviour and feeding

The sight of a tropic-bird at sea can be very surprising, as they seem to appear out of nowhere, hundreds of miles from land. A tropic-bird can fly 50 to 100 feet above a ship or boat, circle it a few times giving a sharp cry or two, then fly away again.

Tropic-birds feed on fish and squid, which they take by diving from a height of 50 feet or more. A bird will hover for a short time before diving with wings half-closed, in a similar manner to a gannet. After plunging in it will reappear after a few seconds with its prey in its beak, then take off from the surface, eating its meal as it goes.


Breeding

Tropic-birds lay a single egg on a cliff ledge or may do so on the ground under a shrub on a low-lying island, or in a hole. No nest is constructed. Incubation takes 28 days, with both parents taking turns, and the chick will take as long as 60 or 65 days to fledge. The parent birds will therefore spend nine months of the year at sea and the other three on land. However, a second brood may be raised, which means that some tropic-birds can divide their time equally between land and sea.

When fledged, the young tropic-bird is on his or her own, as the parent birds will desert the youngster at this stage. He or she will spend much of their life in isolation, although pairs do often stay together at sea. It is only during the breeding season that tropic-birds are seen together in any numbers, especially where is competition for nesting sites. Tropic-birds mate after a courtship display in which up to 20 birds may take part, the main feature being a circling flight, up and down, in which the tail streamers are waved to attract attention.

Tropic-birds will guard their egg zealously, even to the extent of not moving until physically lifted off it, although they will complain vociferously before and after this happens. South Sea Islanders are thus able to collect tail streamers by plucking them from the birds without otherwise harming them.

Man is still the main enemy of the tropic-bird, with egg collection being the main threat. However, the tropic-bird is a protected species in many areas where it nests, so populations that were once in decline have made a comeback.

© John Welford

Mistle thrush

The mistle thrush (Turdus viscivorus) is a large member of the thrush family that is commonly seen in the United Kingdom, and is often regarded as a herald of spring because it arrives at its breeding grounds, and starts singing, as early as late February in some areas. It is also widely distributed throughout Europe and into northern Africa, the Middle East and western Asia.

During the breeding season, mistle thrushes generally confine themselves to forest margins and clearings, but in late summer and autumn they will roam the countryside in flocks. Those birds that over-winter in the UK will often move to fields and moors. Others migrate south and west.

Appearance

The mistle thrush is some 26-28 centimetres (10.5-11 inches) in length. It is therefore larger than the song thrush and is deeper-chested with longer wings and tail. The mistle thrush is an aggressive and powerful bird that stands upright and hops across the ground. When standing it lowers its tail and droops its wings. It resembles the fieldfare in its general appearance and behaviour.

Plumage is similar as between males and females, and is also similar to that of the song thrush. However, the upperparts of the mistle thrush are noticeably greyer. The underparts are light-coloured and speckled from the throat right down to the tail. The underwings are white.


Behaviour

The mistle thrush is not found in undergrowth but often sings from treetops. Its flight is often high, with exaggerated wing-beats.

The voice is a rasping chatter. The song is not unlike that of the blackbird, but less mellow and louder and faster, with shorter pauses between the phrases.

Food consists of berries, fruit, slugs, worms and insects. Mistle thrushes will also take the nestlings of other bird species.


Breeding

The mistle thrush breeds in coniferous and mixed woods, and parkland, building its nest high in the fork of a tree. The first nest will be built towards the end of March and, for the second brood, in June. The nest consists of twigs, roots, grass and moss. The lining, supplied by the female mistle thrush, is made from mud and fine pieces of grass.

The clutch, of four or five eggs, is incubated by the hen bird alone, for up to 14 days. The young birds leave the nest at 14 to 16 days, although they will not be able to fly at this stage.


Conservation

In former times, mistle thrushes were regarded as game birds, possibly because they made attractive targets for marksmen as they announced their presence high in the trees. However, they are now protected and their numbers are keeping up fairly well. Despite this, the mistle thrush remains an “amber list” species in the UK.

© John Welford

Meller's duck

It sometimes happens that a species nearly becomes extinct because nobody recognizes it as a separate species until it is almost too late. This is what has happened in the case of Meller’s duck.

The problem for this bird is that it looks very much like a female mallard, about the same size (23 inches or 60 cm) and with dark brown feathers. Meller’s ducks, unlike mallards and most other duck species, have no features that distinguish males from females.

However, unlike the mallard, the Meller’s duck is very rare, and its natural habitat is limited to a small geographical area, namely the lakes and freshwater wetlands of eastern Madagascar, although there is also a small but declining population on Mauritius (which is where the dodo lived, not a good omen!).

The habitat is under threat, due to deforestation and the drainage of wetlands for agriculture, and the ducks are hunted for sport and food. It has also suffered from predation by rats and mongooses. The bird is a protected species, but the laws are rarely enforced. As a result, the number of birds left in the wild is probably less than 2,000. Meller’s duck is on the red list of endangered species maintained by the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources).

Another problem for the Meller’s duck is that it is closely related to the mallard, and can interbreed with it. The genetic purity of the Meller’s duck is therefore at risk, and it is only captive breeding programs in zoos and bird sanctuaries that are preserving the species.

The Meller’s duck (scientific name Anas melleri) feeds on plants and small fish, plus insects and shrimps.

In the wild, they live in smallish groups rather than flocks, sharing areas of suitable habitat. Pairs are formed during the breeding season (September to April), and may be resumed the following year, but mating for life is rare. The females build nests in thick vegetation near water, and lay one egg a day until the clutch reaches eight to ten eggs. Similarly to mallards, sitting does not begin until the clutch is complete or very nearly so, which means that all the eggs will hatch at roughly the same time and the ducklings will all be the same size. The incubation period is 27-28 days.

Male Meller’s ducks behave in a similar way to their mallard cousins at this time, taking no part in the nest building or incubation but protecting the nest from predators, especially when the female has to leave to find food.

Meller’s ducklings look very much like mallard ducklings with their brown and yellow feathers and a dark stripe on the head. They are able to follow their mother within two days of hatching, and at six weeks they are fledged and able to fly. The following year they will themselves be able to breed.

The fact that Meller’s duck is on the red list is clearly in its favour, but the prognosis for the wild population is not good, for the reasons mentioned above. The introduction of captive-bred birds into the wild will also have to be managed very carefully, because of the danger of interbreeding with the much more successful and widespread mallard. Introductions would therefore only be possible where mallards were absent.

It is therefore highly likely that future generations will only see Meller’s ducks in captivity rather than in their natural habitat.

© John Welford

Meadow pipit

The meadow pipit is a bird that is often seen and heard in upland areas of the United Kingdom, especially in summer.

Habitat and distribution

The meadow pipit (anthus pratensis) is a common songbird in upland areas, where it breeds mostly on moors and open pastures, but it also inhabits coastal dunes and marshes. In winter it moves to lower land, including farmland and even urban parks and playing fields. In appearance, behaviour and habitat it is not unlike the skylark, so confusion between the species is possible.

The meadow pipit is widespread in northern and central Europe, with those in the most northerly regions migrating to the Mediterranean in the autumn. In the United Kingdom the meadow pipit can be found most commonly in the west and north, with a southward shift for the winter months as birds move off the higher land.

Appearance and behaviour

The meadow pipit is 14-15 centimetres (5-6 inches) in length. The plumage is streaky olive-brown above and lighter whitish-grey to buff below, with darker spots. The winter plumage is generally greyer. The sides of the tail are white. The legs are pinkish brown with long hind-claws. Male and female meadow pipits are similar in appearance.

In flight the meadow pipit rises and falls in jerks, except when the male bird performs his song flight that consists of rising straight up to about 100 feet then descending by “parachuting” with the wings held stiffly and turned up. At other times the meadow pipit prefers to stay on the ground but will also perch on trees and posts.

  

The meadow pipit is more gregarious in winter than summer, gathering in small flocks and flying upwards if disturbed.

The song is a shrill and hurried “seep seep” or an alarm call of “tissip”. The song-flight song is a whistling trill.

Food for meadow pipits consists of flies, beetles, moths, worms and spiders, supplemented with seeds later in the year.

Breeding

Meadow pipits reach their breeding grounds in March or April, which is when the males perform their display. A nest is built on the ground in May or June, sometimes earlier, and it consists of grass stems, reeds or moss, lined with animal hairs. The nest is concealed in a clump of grass. The clutch is of four or five eggs which are incubated by the female alone for up to 14 days. Both parents feed the young, for up to 13 days, after which the chicks leave the nest. They will be fully independent two weeks after that and the parents will then raise a second brood.

The meadow pipit has amber conservation status in the United Kingdom as a species that is under some threat but not in immediate danger.

© John Welford

Tawny owl

The tawny owl (Strix aluco) is fairly widespread in Great Britain although it is absent from Ireland, the Outer Hebrides and the Northern Isles. It is also found in continental Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East and western Asia.

Tawny owls inhabit coniferous and deciduous woodland and have adapted to living anywhere where there are large trees, including farmland, parks, gardens and churchyards.

Appearance

It has a large round head and rounded wings. The facial expression is less aggressive than that of many other owl species, probably helped by the dark eyes.

Behaviour and feeding

Tawny owls are nocturnal; they roost during the day and can be very difficult to spot up against tree trunks or hidden in ivy.

Food for tawny owls is mostly small mammals such as voles and mice, but they will also take small birds, insects and even fish.

Breeding

Breeding takes place from late February or March. Two or three eggs are laid in a hole in a tree (or a man-made nestbox). Incubation takes up to 30 days after which the male hunts for food while the female guards the young. After about 15 days both adults will hunt, with the owlets only leaving the nest after 25-30 days. They have not yet fledged, and will therefore stay close to the nest for another week or so until they are ready to fly. They will still be dependent on their parents to bring them food for another three months.

© John Welford

Long-eared owl

The long-eared owl (Asio otus) is a medium sized owl that is similar in size to the barn owl but slightly smaller than the tawny owl and short-eared owl. Like most owls it is mainly nocturnal, but it also sometimes hunts by day. It is to be found in coniferous woodland and also in marshy and moorland areas.

It is found throughout continental Europe, except for the far north. It breeds in many parts of the United Kingdom, although it is rarely seen in south-west England or south Wales. English populations are generally resident, but those in Scotland tend to migrate south for the winter. Migrant long-eared owls also arrive from continental Europe to winter in the UK. Long-eared owls are also found in Asia and North America.

Appearance

The long-eared owl is around 34-37 centimetres (13-14.5 inches) in length, with females being slightly larger than males. It is of slender build, with a slightly elongated face, orange eyes, and facial markings that give the long-eared owl a permanent expression of surprise. The “ears” are not ears at all, but tufts above the eyes that are raised in alarm to ward off predators.

The plumage, which is similar as between males and females, is grey-brown above and streaky buff below. The wings are long and broad, with orange-buff patches on the uppersides and somewhat lighter below. The short tail is square in shape.

Behaviour

In flight the long-eared owl makes deep jerky beats followed by glides on level wings. Long-eared owls roost in trees during the day, often in small groups. They can be difficult to see because they can easily be mistaken for broken branch stumps.

The call of the long-eared owl is a low moaning hoot (heard between January and April), but it can also produce a variety of barks, screams and squeals, and young birds sound like rusty hinges opening and closing. Long-eared owls will also signal their presence by clapping their wings sharply against the sides of their bodies.

Food comprises small mammals, such as voles and mice, small birds, and insects. 

Breeding

Long-eared owls usually nest in trees, using the abandoned nests of other birds, such as crows or jays, or squirrel dreys, with a little modification. However, ground nesting is also possible if suitable tree sites are not available.

The clutch consists of four to six eggs, laid at any time between March and June. The female long-eared owl begins incubation as soon as the first egg is laid, which means that the young hatch successively. Incubation takes 27-28 days, being done by the female alone, while the male stands guard nearby.

When the young birds start to hatch the male long-eared owl brings food for the whole family, although he passes it to the female who then feeds the chicks. The young leave the nest at around 21 days, and only one brood is raised.

© John Welford