Shepherd's purse

Shepherd’s purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) is a persistent weed that is found across much of the world as well as Great Britain. It grows on wasteland and also in gardens and on farmland.

It grows to 18 inches (45 centimetres) in height and also sprawls across the ground. The stems can be either branched or unbranched. The lower leaves, which form a rosette, are dull green in colour and are lobed to a greater or lesser extent. The upper leaves clasp the stem.

The small white flowers, which can appear at any time of the year, form in clusters at the tip of the stem.

The seed-pods have a distinctive heart shape, or a triangle with a notch at the top. This is the feature that gave the plant its name, because it was noted centuries ago that shepherds took their lunch into the fields in a pouch that was just this shape, slung from a belt. The resemblance to a coin purse is reinforced by the fact that, when ripe, the seeds will spill out of the pod if it is touched, just like coins from a purse.

An alternative name is “mother’s heart”, because of a trick that children would play on each other. An unwitting child would be asked to pick the ripe heart-shaped pods from a shepherd’s purse plant and, when the inevitable happened, would be told that he or she had just broken his or her mother’s heart!

Although insects do visit shepherd’s purse flowers, many plants self-pollinate. This leads to local inbreeding and variations in the appearance of the plant as between different colonies.

© John Welford

Butterfly fish

Butterfly fish belong to the Chaetontidae family. They are around four to ten inches long and inhabit coral reefs in shallow tropical seas.

All species of butterfly fish are brightly coloured, have deep bodies and a series of spines in front of both the dorsal and anal fins. These fins curve round the body to meet the tail fin.

Another feature that distinguishes butterfly fish is the pronounced snout, although the size of it varies between species, depending on particular feeding habits. For example, the clown butterfly fish from the tropical Pacific has a relatively short snout whereas that of the forcipiger butterfly fishes is very long.

The mouth parts of the various species also display differences that relate to snout length. Some have pointed long snouts with tiny mouths and protruding teeth that are used to nip off coral polyps, whereas the long-nosed butterfly fish (Forcipiger longirostris) uses its much longer snout to probe gaps in the coral to find burrowing crustaceans and worms.

© John Welford

Sea sandwort

Sea sandwort (Honkenya peploides) is found all round the coast of Great Britain, especially on sandy beaches above the high water mark, where it helps in the creation of sand dunes.

It has fleshy bright green leaves and creeping stems. It grows to a maximum height of ten inches but may only be two inches high when fully grown. It has both flowering and non-flowering stems, with the small white flowers appearing between May and September. Male and female flowers do not grow on the same plant.

Sea sandwort has a strong root system that helps it stay in place when the wind blows. It acts as a windbreak in that the sand builds up on the windward side, which could be the beginning of a dune. Should the plant be buried in sand, it will send up new shoots to reach the light with the old shoots dying back.

© John Welford

The penguin prostitutes

The story about penguins falling over backwards as they watch a plane flying overhead and keep watching until they overbalance, has been going the rounds for some time, although it may just be an “outdoor urban myth”. However, a few years ago a wildlife expert from Australia reported another reason why penguins, particularly female ones, might be found in unfortunate positions.

Adelie penguins on the coast of Antarctica build their nests from small stones, which are therefore highly prized at breeding time in the enormous colonies that these birds create. Theft of stones is common, but some enterprising females have hit on a new way of getting hold of a supply.

On the fringes of the colony, the young males who have not yet found a mate are doubtless sexually frustrated, but they have the advantage of ready access to large numbers of stones from outside the colony. They therefore collect piles of the best stones, with which they buy sexual favours from the breeding females who visit them with the sole purpose of getting hold of a stone. The going rate appears to be one good stone per shag.

In this trade, everyone's a winner. Except perhaps for the male penguin back at the nest who might be wondering (a) why the missus is looking so VERY pleased with herself when she gets back with a stone, (b) why she has taken so long getting it, and (c) why she keeps complaining about a headache when he suggests that they have an early night.

© John Welford

Black mustard

Is mustard a wild flower? It counts as one if it has spread beyond the confines of cultivated crops, and that is certainly the case in parts of the United Kingdom where it grows as a wayside weed.

The black mustard plant (Brassica nigra) grows upright to a maximum height of 36 inches. The stems are thick and hairy towards the base but much thinner and hairless higher up. The large leaves grow on stalks, close to the ground, and the flower stems shoot much higher. The flowers grow in clusters, each having four yellow petals that are twice the length of the green sepals. Flowering begins in May. As the lower flowers die off they leave long seed-pods hugging the stem.

The name “black” refers to the round seeds that are dark brown to black on the outside but, when crushed, produce the familiar yellow powder that is used for making table mustard.

The use of mustard as a condiment only began in the 13^th century in France, with the ground-up seeds being mixed with partly fermented grape juice, known as “must”, to produce “moût-ardent” which translates as “burning must”. This became contracted in French to “moutarde” and “mustard” in English.

Fields of black mustard used to be a common sight in England, particularly East Anglia, but most commercially produced mustard powder is now derived from rape, to which the black mustard plant is related. The familiar sight of yellow fields during summertime is almost entirely due to the growing of rape, which has many uses other than making hot dogs taste spicier!

Mustard also has medicinal uses, as anyone with a stinking cold will know if they have tried soaking their feet in a mustard bath. It is also effective as a poultice for relieving chest ailments and muscular pains.

© John Welford

Annual wall-rocket

Annual wall-rocket (Diplotaxis muralis) is a common wild flower in southern England but is found more rarely in northern England, Scotland and Wales. It grows on waste ground, particularly in sandy soils, and also on old stone walls, hence part of its name. However, the “annual” part is less accurate because it can be biennial as well as annual.

It grows up to 24 inches high, having unbranched stems and lobed leaves. It has yellow flowers that appear from May to September. The sepals of the flowers spread slightly. The cylindrical seed-pods grow on long stalks that stick out at an angle from the stem. The yellow-brown seeds grow in two rows within the pods.

An alternative name for annual wall-rocket is “stinkweed”. This becomes apparent if you crush a stem between your fingers – the juice has a foul “bad eggs” smell similar to that of hydrogen sulphide. The flowers, however, are fragrant and it is these that attract insect pollinators.

© John Welford

Surf-perch

Surf-perches are perch-like fish that belong to the Embiotocidae family. They inhabit the North Pacific coast from California to Alaska and some species are found in Japanese waters.

They are never found far from the shoreline and may be seen, for example, in rock pools.

The most remarkable feature of surf-perches is that they give birth to live young. The eggs, which can vary in number from three to 80, are fertilized in the ovarian follicles but then remain in the ovaries until fully formed, being fed by secretions produced in the ovaries.

Young males do not leave the ovaries until they are themselves sexually mature. In the shiny surf-perch (Cymatogaster aggregate), which is found abundantly in California, the males mate almost immediately after they are born.

The illustration is of a Californian striped surf-perch (Embiotoca lateralis).

© John Welford

Procumbent pearlwort

Procumbent pearlwort (Sagina procumbens) is common throughout Britain on lawns, banks and grass verges. It is also found alongside footpaths.

The connection to pearls is not immediately apparent when viewing the plant, although it might have been thought that the seed-pod or unopened flower was similar in shape to a pearl. “Procumbent” simply means that the plant grows along the ground.

Procumbent pearlwort has been associated in legend and tradition with Jesus Christ, as being the first plant he trod on when rising from the dead. In the Highlands of Scotland it used to be believed that the plant had been blessed by St Bride and St Columba, as well as Christ.

Traditions involving pearlwort include hanging it from the door lintel to ward off fairies. Another is that if pearlwort is inserted between the “toes” of a bull’s hooves it will confer protection against all ills on the cows with which it mates and the calves that are subsequently born. If it is eaten by a cow, anyone who drinks the cow’s milk will not be troubled by fairies.

Pearlwort also acted as a love charm, in that a maiden who drank an infusion of pearlwort would attract the man she wanted, and he would be bound to her forever if she had a piece of pearlwort in her mouth when she kissed him. You might almost imagine that there was a “Pearlwort Marketing Board” at work here!

With all these advantages, one might expect procumbent pearlwort to be a somewhat spectacular plant. Far from it! It is a mass of slender stems that branch out from a central rosette, with pairs of small leaves growing along the length of each stem. The plant can reach a height of 8 inches (20m centimetres) above the ground.

The flowers, which appear from May to October, are tiny and are borne on long stalks. The flowers consist of far more sepal than petal and therefore have little colour other than green. The sepals form a cross-shape in fours. The flower stalks droop after flowering but become upright again as the fruit ripens.

© John Welford

Scotch argus butterfly

The scotch argus butterfly (Erebia aethiops), despite its name, is not particularly common in Scotland, although it is found there. It occurs mainly in eastern Europe with scattered colonies in other places. It inhabits open grassland close to pine forests and hillsides up to 2000 metres. It flies only when the sun shines in late summer.

Its wingspan reaches a maximum of 5.2 centimetres. The scotch argus is very dark brown with an orange-brown band on each wing marked with black and white eye-spots. The underwings are similar but paler. Females are paler than males.

The caterpillar is pale brown with a darker line along the back and sides. It feeds at dawn and dusk on various grass food plants, later pupating in a flimsy cocoon in the leaf litter.

© John Welford

Gold-of-pleasure

Gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa) grows on arable land and waste ground, although it is not widespread in Great Britain. It is not a native species, having arrived from continental Europe centuries ago, probably as seeds that had contaminated a commercial product such as flax seed.

It is known to have been cultivated as a crop in various parts of Europe going back as far as Neolithic times, probably for its oil which resembles olive oil. It may also have been cultivated for its tough fibres for use in brushes.

The plant grows erect to around 24 inches (60 centimetres) in height, branching out from the upper part of the stem. The long, slender leaves have an arrowhead shape, clasping the stem at their base.

The flowers are small and yellow, the four petals forming a cross shape. They appear in June and July. The seed pods grow on quite long stalks and are pear-shaped. It is the seeds that can be used to produce an oil that is edible and can also be used for burning in lamps and for cosmetic purposes.

© John Welford

Fairy flax

Fairy flax (Linum catharticum) grows widely in Great Britain on well-drained soils. It is found in several habitats including fenland, grassland, moors and heaths.

It is a delicate plant with slender, wire-like stems, and does not look much like its close relative, the much sturdier flax plant that is cultivated for linen production.

Fairy flax produces upright stems to a maximum height of eight inches. The flowers, which appear from June to September, grow in a loose, branched flower head. Each flower has five narrow white petals.

The Latin name translates as “purging flax” which derives from the plant’s former use as a purgative, made from bruised stems simmered in wine. However, it tended to produce such violent results that other preparations became preferred as remedies.

© John Welford

Smith's pepperwort

Smith’s pepperwort (Lepidium heterophyllum) is known by several other names, including “Smith’s cress” and “hairy pepperwort”. The Smith in question was the botanist Sir James Edward Smith (1759-1828) and the plant was named in his honour by the first director of the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew, namely Sir William Hooker.

Smith’s pepperwort grows alongside roads and paths, and on arable land, in England, Wales and southern Scotland. It is generally regarded as a weed, although some members of the pepperwort family have been cultivated for the peppery taste of their leaves. The cress of “mustard and cress” is a pepperwort.

The stems of Smith’s pepperwort grow upright, often branching from near the ground. The narrow triangular leaves grow straight off the stems, without stalks. The tiny white flowers grow in clusters and can be seen from May to August. The seed-pods form on stalks as the flower-stems grow higher. The maximum height of the plant is 36 inches (90 centimetres).

© John Welford