Night-flowering catchfly

Night-flowering catchfly (Silene noctiflora) is an unusual plant in a number of respects, two of which are indicated by its popular name. It grows on arable land and also on wasteland throughout Britain except for the far north.

A single stem, usually unbranched, grows to a maximum height of 24 inches (60 centimetres), with unstalked leaves growing in pairs at intervals up the stem. The plant flowers in July and August, which is when its more remarkable features come into play. The petals, which are pale yellow on the underside, roll up during the day but unroll to reveal their pink or white upperside as dusk approaches. They also release their pleasant scent at the same time.

The reason for this regime is that the plant is mostly pollinated by moths, notably the yellow underwing. This is where the “catchfly” part comes in, because the stems of the plant are covered in sticky hairs. When the moth touches the plant it finds that it cannot get away easily and so is more likely to get covered in pollen, or release any pollen it is already carrying, as it tries to break free.  This it will do, because the plant is not insectivorous and is only interested in temporary prisoners rather than permanent ones.

Another unusual feature of night-flowering catchfly is that the anthers in the flowers only produce pollen several days before the stigmas are ready to receive it. This means that the plant cannot self-pollinate and therefore depends on the moths to do this job for it.

© John Welford

Sweet violet

Sweet violet (Viola odorata) grows in hedges and woodland over most of the British Isles.

It is a stemless plant, with the heart-shaped leaves forming a rosette at the base and the flowers rising on long stalks. The plant hugs the ground, being less than three inches (six centimetres) in height. It is a creeping plant, with runners growing from the rosette and roots.

The flowers are bluish-violet or white. They appear from January to April. The fruit is a hairy globular capsule that stays closed until after it has touched the ground.

Sweet violet is one of several British species of violet but it is the only one that has scented flowers. These were formerly used to mask smells in cottages and churches by being strewn on the floor, although the scent of the sweet violet flower does not last long. The trick that the plant plays is that it produces a substance called ionine that has the effect of dulling the sense of smell – one may not be able to smell the violet for long, but neither can one smell anything else! Fortunately, the effect is not long-lasting and one’s normal faculties are restored soon after leaving the violets behind.

© John Welford

Good King Henry

Good King Henry (Chenopodium bonus-henricus) has nothing to do with any King Henry, good or otherwise. It is a wild-growing plant that came to Great Britain from Germany, where it is known as Guter Heinrich. It was the Brits who introduced the King! As for Heinrich, he was nobody special either - the reference is probably to an elf-like creature from folklore.

Good King Henry is found throughout Britain on ground that is nitrogen-rich, including farmland, grassland and roadside verges. It is one of the 15 varieties of goosefoot that grow in Great Britain, but is the only one that is a perennial. It is also alone in having broad arrowhead-shaped leaves, which can be eaten as a green vegetable when boiled.

Good King Henry grows to between 12 and 20 inches (30-50 centimetres) high. The stems, which are hollow, grow upright and bear leaves and flower spikes (from May to August). The flowers have four or five greenish segments that resemble petals within which the seed capsule forms.

© John Welford

Sea-purslane

Sea-purslane (Halimione portulacoides) is a plant of salt marshes in England and western Scotland. It is a very hardy plant that can cope with high salt concentration, strong winds and twice-daily inundation by the sea.

Sea-purslane grows along the edges of muddy creeks and can be distinguished by the silvery sheen of the scales on its leaves. These scales contain air, as opposed to sap, and they protect the plant by acting as a buffer to the leaves against salt water and the glare of the sun, thus preventing them from drying out.

The stems of the plant sprawl at the base before turning upwards. The plant can grow to 32 inches (80 centimetres) high. The leaves are elliptical and untoothed.

Sea-purslane flowers from July to September. The yellow male flowers appear in clusters. The female flowers have neither petals nor sepals.

© John Welford

Lesser spearwort

Lesser spearwort (Ranunculus flammula) is commonly found in wet and marshy places throughout Great Britain, including ditches and alongside ponds and lakes. It is closely related to the buttercup, but has much narrower, spear-like leaves.

The stems of lesser spearwort grow either upright or along the ground, and when the latter happens they root themselves at intervals, thus creating new plants. The plant can grow anything from two to 20 inches (5-50 centimetres) in height, and the yellow flowers, which usually appear singly, are seen between May and September.

The sap of all members of the buttercup family is poisonous to livestock, but that of lesser spearwort is especially so, and cattle and sheep have died as a result of eating it. The name “flammula” derives from the ability of the plant to cause inflammation of the skin in humans.

A distilled form of the sap has been used in medical preparations as an emetic in cases of poisoning by other agents – the idea being that the stomach will repel lesser spearwort immediately and thus throw up other stomach contents that might be causing ever greater harm. However, it’s probably best not to try it for oneself!

© John Welford

Water scorpion

Water scorpions are not true scorpions but they do have some features in common, such as pincer-like front legs and an elongated abdomen. Both types of ‘scorpion’ are voracious hunters. Members of the Nepidae family (there are 14 genera within the family) are found on every continent except Antarctica.

Water scorpions are of two types, either needle-shaped (‘needle bugs’) or resembling a dead leaf in appearance.

Water scorpions live in plants close to the water’s edge where they can stay still for many hours before pouncing on prey that comes too close in the water. They will then grab the prey (such as tadpoles, small fish and other aquatic animals) and inject it with venom to paralyze it. They will then suck it dry of its body contents.

Water scorpions do not possess gills but have a breathing tube that is used like a snorkel. They also trap air bubbles in their body hair and use these to breathe underwater.

Male water scorpions attract females by rubbing their forelegs against their bodies. Females lay their eggs in slits in plant stems.

© John Welford

Common fumitory

The common fumitory (Fumaria officinalis) grows on both cultivated and uncultivated land, including cornfields and roadsides, and is found throughout Great Britain, particularly towards the eastern side of the country. It is also found in other parts of the world including North America.

The plant consists of tangled stems bearing either long slender leaves that are deeply divided or flower spikes that can bear up to twenty flowers apiece. Although the plant does not produce tendrils it is often found climbing up other plants, reaching a maximum height of 20 inches (50 centimetres).

The flowers are pink and funnel-shaped, with the petals ending in dark tips. Although each flower produces nectar, this does not seem to be particularly attractive to insects. Instead, the plant is mainly self-pollinating. The flowers appear from May to September after which globular fruiting bodies appear that each contain only one seed.

The name “fumitory” derives from a mediaeval Latin word meaning “smoke of the earth”. This is because, when a root is pulled from the ground, it gives off an acrid smell similar to that of nitric acid fumes. The plant is known in North America as the “fume root” for this reason. Another connection with smoke is that the sap will make the eyes water just like smoke will, should anyone be foolish enough to let this happen.

© John Welford

Maiden pink

Maiden pink (Dianthus deltoides) is a plant that grows wild throughout Great Britain on banks and in hill pastures. It is also grown in gardens for its delicate pink flowers. It is related to carnations and sweet williams.

Maiden pink may get its name from the flowers, which appear from June to September. They are supposed to be the colour of a maiden’s blush and to close with maidenly modesty when the weather is overcast. However, the name could be a corruption of “mead pink” from its habit of growing in meadows. Because natural meadows are encountered only rarely these days, maiden pinks are not as common as they once were.

Maiden pink grows to a maximum height of 18 inches (45 centimetres) and consists of both flowering and non-flowering upright stems. The upper leaves are pointed, but those lower down and on non-flowering shoots are blunt at the end.

The flowers form open clusters, each having five toothed petals, with long brown sepals below. When the fruit is ripe, four teeth open to release the seeds.

The flowers have a clove-like scent that attracts butterflies and moths.

© John Welford

Beluga whale

The beluga whale has the scientific name Delphinapterus leucas which means “white dolphin without wings”. It is certainly related to the dolphins, it is milky white in colour, and it lacks a dorsal fin, which makes it easier to swim underneath floating ice.

Beluga whales inhabit the northern Arctic Ocean where they are found close to icebergs, feeding on crabs, squid, shrimps and fish. In turn, young belugas are prey for polar bears and belugas of all ages are taken by killer whales (orcas).

Belugas have stout bodies, small beaks and prominent foreheads. They are unusual among whales in being able to nod and shake their heads.

Belugas have been termed “sea canaries” because of the variety of sounds they emit, including chirps, squeaks and whistles.

Belugas are social and swim in groups of up to twenty members led by a single male. However, during migrations the groups can become thousands strong.

Young belugas begin life coloured dark or pinky grey. They only gain their adult whiteness after five or more years.

© John Welford

Pale flax

Pale flax (Linum bienne) is closely related to the plant that was used by the ancient Egyptians for making the cloth used to wrap mummies. It was from this plant that strains were developed that led to cultivated flax plants and commercial linen production in Europe.

Pale flax grows wild in Great Britain in grassy environments, particularly near the sea in the West Country and Wales.

The plant grows to between 12 and 24 inches (30-60 centimetres) in height. It has wiry stems, sometimes branched, that bear narrow leaves growing singly on alternate sides of the stem. The pale blue flowers appear from May to September.

Although flax is known to have been used thousands of years ago for making cloth, the use of its seeds for food-oil may go back even further. Linseed oil, derived from flax, is still used today in cattle-cake and in the manufacture of paints and varnishes, not to mention its traditional application for keeping cricket bats in good order.

© John Welford

Traveller's joy

Traveller’s joy (Clematis vitalba) is known by a different name after the flowers have gone and the seeds have formed, which is “Old man’s beard” (see picture), due to the long wispy tufts that flow from the end of each seed.

It is a wild clematis that is found in southern Britain, especially on chalky soil. It is always found in association with other hedge plants such as elder or hawthorn because it is a climber, relying on other plants to support it. However, unlike ivy it is not parasitic.

The woody stems twine around the thicker stems of the host plant and can reach 100 feet (30 metres) in length. The leaves consist of three to five pointed leaflets. The flowers are small and do not have true petals but coloured sepals (white or greenish) and long stamens that give off a vanilla-like odour.

However, it is during its old man’s beard phase that this plant is most noticeable, with the clusters of feathery plumes looking just curly white hair.

Another name for this plant is “boy’s baccy”, from the habit of country boys in the past of smoking the stems when dried. Another, somewhat bizarre use in times gone by, was by tramps and beggars who would rub the stems against their legs so that the sap, which is a mild irritant, would give the appearance of leg ulcers – apparently a tramp with an ulcerated leg would evince more sympathy than one whose legs were completely disease-free!

© John Welford

Harvest mouse

The harvest mouse (Micromys minitus) is Britain’s smallest rodent, weighing only six grams when fully grown and measuring no more than 70 millimetres in length (excluding the tail). By comparison, the house mouse is usually around 70-90 millimetres long, and the wood mouse is 80-130 millimetres.

It is therefore not surprising that the harvest mouse is rarely seen, but loss of habitat in recent years has made this even more difficult. Although the species is not officially threatened, active steps have been taken, for example in Somerset, to reintroduce harvest mice in areas where their numbers have declined markedly. Their distribution within the British Isles is confined to England, with few being found in the far north of England.

Apart from their size, harvest mice are easily distinguished from other mice. They are golden brown in colour and white underneath, with blunt muzzles and hairy ears. They are the only British mice with prehensile tails, which are about the same length as the head and body combined.

Their breeding habits also set them apart from other British mice in that they build nests well above ground level, among the stalks of vegetation such as cereals, rushes or brambles, at a height of 30-60 centimetres. The nest looks like a ball of grass about ten centimetres in diameter. It is not easy to spot during summer, but old nests stand out when the grass has withered to brown and surrounding vegetation has died back. The nests are built by female mice when already well into pregnancy.

Breeding takes place from late May until October, or even later if the weather is mild, with litters varying in size up to as many as eight. A female can produce as many as seven litters during a season, which might be her only chance to breed because the harvest mouse is short-lived with many only living for six months. The maximum lifespan in the wild is around 18 months.

The young, who are usually born at night, are suckled for about nine days and then fed on seeds that have been chewed by their mother (the male is usually ejected by the female before the litter is born). It is common for the female to become pregnant again within days of raising a litter, so the young mice may be ejected within two to three weeks of birth. They will themselves be sexually mature within six weeks.

Harvest mice feed on seeds, berries, grass shoots and insects. They are themselves preyed upon by many larger animals, such as stoats, weasels and foxes, and by birds such as hawks, crows and especially owls. Harvest mice tend to be nocturnal during the summer and less so during the winter. During summer months they are therefore very susceptible to being taken by barn owls, and studies have shown that, where harvest mice are common, they can account for as much as 65% of the diet of barn owls.

Harvest mouse populations can suffer considerably during adverse weather, such as a severe winter, although February, which can be both cold and wet, is the month during which mortality is highest.

However, changes in farming methods are also a serious threat. The use of combine harvesting and pesticide spraying has reduced harvest mouse numbers, as have changes in the pattern of crop growing and the introduction of short-stemmed cereal varieties that prevent harvest mice from building their nests at a safe height above the ground.

© John Welford

Giraffes versus acacias

As animals have evolved to secure advantages in the constant battle for species survival, so have other animals and plants evolved to defend themselves and win their own battles. A good example of punch and counterpunch, in evolutionary terms, is that of the giraffe and the acacia.

Rounds one and two

As everyone knows, the giraffe is a species of antelope that has gone for tallness in a bid to reach food sources that are not available to other grazing animals. A particular favourite is the acacia tree, which is normally safe from other animals because of its thorny leaves. However, the giraffe’s long neck has a joint at the top that enables the head to point straight up, and its tongue is more than 20 inches long. This means that giraffes can get access to the very top of many acacias, and it is at the top that the fresh young leaves grow that have not yet developed their thorns.

If round one went to the acacias, by keeping the thornless leaves out of harm’s way, then round two seems to have been won by the giraffes. What about round three?

Round three

The fightback by the acacia has been the ability to make the young leaves taste bitter for a short time. They do this by releasing a chemical that only has this effect when the tree is “under attack”, and this chemical can be borne on the wind and carried to other acacia trees as a sort of warning to them to do the same. The giraffes might therefore find that their tasty meal is not so tasty after all.

Round four

And for round four? The giraffes have sussed out the acacias’ trick and always approach the trees upwind, so that the warning signals will be blown in the wrong direction from the trees’ point of view and the giraffes will therefore have a chance of munching a good few mouthfuls of leaves before the tree has a chance to turn its “yuck factory” on.

What will happen next?

If the balance is maintained such that giraffes and acacias can both thrive as things are, then there may be no need for a round five. However, should conditions change to their disadvantage, it looks as though it is up to the acacias to develop the next tactic!

© John Welford

Great crested newt

The great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) is a large amphibian that measures up to 16 centimetres long (females are larger than males). It is found near pools and ponds but is able to travel short distances from water.

The upper body is brown, black or grey but the underside is bright yellow or orange with black marks. The body is covered in warty bumps.

Male great crested newts have a long crest on the back and their tails grow larger during the breeding season.

Great crested newts hibernate from October to March when they emerge to breed. Eggs are laid in water, the tadpoles staying there for four months until they are able to breathe air.

The tadpoles, when their legs have formed, look very similar to adults, only smaller.

Great crested newts feed on worms, insects, larvae, and the young of frogs and other newt species.

Although they are widespread in Europe and lowland Britain, numbers have declined in recent years due to habitat loss. In the United Kingdom they are a protected species, and the discovery of a breeding or hibernating colony of great crested newts can lead to difficulties for building or road projects.

© John Welford